Notes on the Book of Revelation (The Apocalypse)

Part IV: Chapters 16-22 (the conclusion)

Chapter Sixteen

This chapter (which begins with kai or and) describes in some detail the pouring out of the bowls by the seven angels which correlate with the ten plagues of Egypt (Ex 7-12). While paralleling the respective plagues, it is helpful to keep in mind the resistence Moses and Aaron met from Pharaoh after each affliction. Also, the Israelites did not suffer from the plagues but enjoyed bounty while their Egyptian neighbors suffered.

The "loud voice" (phone) issues from the naos or temple. Such a voice is impersonal and is directed towards the seven angels. Note that the command to pour (excheo, literally, to empty out entirely) parallels Ps 69.24: "Pour out your indignation upon them and let your burning anger overtake them." Chapter Sixteen may be outlined as follows with regard to each of the seven angels and the contents of their bowls:

-First angel: he is bidden to go (hupago, literally, to lead under), a verb which connotes departure. "Leave your gift at the altar and go" [Mt 5.24]. Vs. 2 has this angel going (aperchomai); compare the two prepositions, hupo and apo in these two verbs of departure, that latter signifying departure from the voice's presence. The angel pours his bowl (phiale, cf. 15.7) "on (literally into, eis) the earth," indicating thorough penetration of the earth of divine thumos. Such thumos results in sores (helkos), the same term the LXX uses for the sixth plague in Egypt: "And it shall become fine dust over all the land of Egypt and become boils breaking out in sores" [Ex 9.9]. Also, "Moreover the dogs came and licked his (Lazarus) sores" [Lk 16.21]. The sores are foul (kakos, the usual word for iniquity and evil (poneros), the latter connoting something full of labors and morally bad. After the bowl was poured "into the earth" its contents came "upon (epi) men" who are marked by the beast and who worship it. It is as though the eis-ness of the sores which penetrated the earth rose up "epi" such men.

-Second angel: his phiale was poured "into (eis) the sea," reminiscent of the first plague: "And the Nile became foul so that the Egyptians could not drink water from the Nile; and there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt" [Ex 7.21]. The second angel's plague has a worse type of blood, that of a dead corpse.

-Third angel: his phiale went into (eis) rivers and fountains (pege), causing them to become blood. These are sources of water for drinking as opposed to the sea of vs. 3. Vs. 5 mentions "angel of waters" who may be distinguished from the third angel; the former may be taken as a protector of the source of life. He directly addresses God (Holy One, Hosios) by acknowledging the just action of the second angel's phiale. The blood of saints and prophets directly correspond to the blood in the sea, rivers and fountains. Compare excheo (to shed) with its use in vs. 1, to pour out (that is, the divine thumos). Those responsible for shedding such holy blood are due or axios which means worthy.

-After the angel of waters speaks, John hears the altar (thusiasterion) itself "cry;" the Greek text simply has says, lego. This is the same altar of 6.9 under which were located "the souls of those who had been slain for the word of God and the witness they had borne." Since the altar is used for sacrifice and thereby connotes the presence of blood, it rightly responds to the previous verses which speaks of blood. The altar refers to judgments or krisis with respect to the shedding of innocent blood; such judgments belong to God as Pantokrator, 1.8, where he is also the Alpha and Omega. Compare with Gen 4.10: "The voice of your brother's blood is crying to me from the ground."

-Fourth angel: his phiale is poured "upon (epi) the sun" which intensified its heat to scorch (kaumatizo) men, a plague which is clearly more devastating than drought. "But when the sun rose they were scorched" [Mt 13.6]. Note the result of such scorching: men curse (blasphemeo, 16.11) God. "The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of you" [Rom 2.24]. Connected with such profanation is a two-fold failure: 1) not to repent (metanoeo). "I gave her time to repent, but she refuses" [2.21] and 2) not to give God glory or doxa.

-Fifth angel: his phiale is poured on (epi) the beast's throne (thronos) causing it to be in darkness (skotoo). Cf. 13.1: "And to it (beast) the dragon gave his power and his throne and great authority." I.e., the throne onto which the angel emptied his bowl ultimately is intended for the dragon; the beast remains subordinate to him. Cf. Ex 10.21: "Stretch out your hand toward heaven that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, a darkness to be felt." Here Moses' hand acts to form a kind of eclipse. This verse is meant to be understood in the context of vs. 23: "But all the people of Israel had light where they dwelt." The darkness mentioned in Revelation causes men to curse (blasphemeo) God; another mentioned of their failure to repent (metanoeo).

-Sixth angel: his phiale is poured on (epi) the Euphrates River to dry it up not so much to cause a drought but to prepare a way for "kings from the east:" "'Be dry, I will dry up your rivers;' who says of Cyrus, 'He is my shepherd, and he shall fulfil all my purpose" [Is 44.27-8]. Compare the drying up of the Red Sea in preparation for Israel's exodus. In addition to this, "three foul spirits" (pneuma) came from the mouths of the dragon, beast and false prophet (pseudoprophetos) or the second beast of 13.11-15, despite the fact that this designation is not expressly used; cf. 19.20. Such spirits resemble frogs: "...cause frogs to come upon the land of Egypt" [Ex 8.7]. In addition to being foul, vs. 14 calls such frogs "demonic (daimonion) spirits" who assemble kings for battle "on the great day of God the Almighty (Pantokrator)." Cf. 19.19: "The beast and the kings of the earth with their armies gathered to make war against him who sits upon the horse and against his army." Such a battle is designated as a kairos event or a day (hemera) belonging to God as Pantokrator.

-Vs. 15 is a kind of interpolation and is an exclamation which begins with the attention-getting idou, behold. Here (presumably) it has Jesus Christ identifying himself as a thief or kleptes, reminiscent of Mt 24.43-4: "If the householder had known in what part of the night the thief was coming, he would have watched...Therefore you also must be ready; for the Son of man is coming at an hour you do not expect." This verse's hour (hora) has a parallel with the "great day (hemera) of the Almighty" of vs. 14, i.e., another way of stating a kairos event. Bound up with this thief-like coming is an exclamation of blessedness (makarios, adjective), the third of seven beatitudes in Revelation. For the future coming of Jesus Christ, cf. 4.8 and 11.17, both of which are in the context of calling God Pantokrator. The beatitude of vs. 15 pertains to the person who is awake (gregoreo), the present participle being used to show continuous watchfulness. "Watch therefore, for you do not know on what day your Lord is coming" [Mt 24.42]. This verse is in the same context of vss. 43-4 cited just above, only here the time frame is day (hemera). The watchfulness of vs. 15 pertains to keeping (tereo) one's garments. Parallel it with 3.3: "Keep that, and repent. If you will not awake, I will come like a thief, and you will not know at what hour I will come upon you." Refer to this verse for remarks with regard to tereo, etc. Reference to garments may connote having them on at all times in preparation for immediate departure: "Let your loins be girded and your lamps burning, and be like men who are waiting for their master to come home from the marriage feast" [Lk 12.35]. Failure to be thus prepared results in going about naked; the verb here is peripateo which connotes wandering from one place to another. Similarly, being exposed (aschemosune) has a fuller meaning of being ashamed.

-Vs. 16: a return to the main theme of battle preparation where the demonic spirits of vs. 14 assemble the world's kings at Armageddon. "The kings came, they fought; then fought the kings of Canaan at Taanach, by the waters of Megiddo" [Jdg 5.19]. Also, "On that day the mourning in Jerusalem will be as great as the mourning for Hadadrimmon (a fertility god) in the plain of Megiddo" [Zech 12.11]. In brief, Armageddon is a site of several decisive battles in Israelite history; for another, cf. 2 Kg 9.27. Mention of this place in vs. 16 indicates the final and conclusive engagement between forces of good and evil. The nature of this engagement is illuminated by reference to Christ as thief...as though he will sneak in among the assembled forces and thwart them from within. Such stealth is heightened by the words "at the place" (topos), that is, at that locality where the world's kings overtly gathered in contrast to the secret, stealth-like coming of Jesus Christ.

-Seventh angel: the final pouring of a phiale, this time epi (upon) the air, followed by vs 1's "loud voice" from (ek) the temple (naos), only here the same voice comes from (apo) the throne, the second preposition meaning "away from" as opposed to "out of" belonging to ek. In the verse at hand, the words It is done (Gegonen) issue forth, that is, they come "out of" as well as "away from." The double use of ek and apo can signify full departure (from the temple's sacred precincts) of the unidentified voice not unlike Jesus on the cross: It is finished (Tetelestai, Jn 19.30). This latter expression denotes a fuller sense of completion (verb is teleioo) as opposed to Gegonen (gignomai) which means something that has come to pass.

-Verses 18-21 spell out in greater detail the Gegonen which occurs at the same time the seventh angel pours his bowl "epi" the air and may be outlined as follows:

-Flashes of lightening, loud noises, peals of thunder: they result from a great earthquake and are reminiscent of 8.5 as well as the theophany at Mt. Sinai, Ex 19.16-19.

-This earthquake, resulting from the last of seven bowls being poured out, resembles that at Christ's death: "And behold, the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom; and the earth shook, and the rocks were split" [Mt 27.51].

-The earthquake was one which no person had ever seen, evocative of Dan 12.1: "And there shall be a time of trouble, such as never has been since there was a nation until that time."

-The earthquake noted with regard to Christ's crucifixion has as its chief purpose the revelation of the sanctuary in the temple made visible by the rent curtain. Its rending parallels the piercing of Christ's side from which blood and water flowed (cf. Jn 19.34). The six consequences of the earthquake are as follows:

1) "The great city" (split into three parts) is juxtaposed with "cities of nations" and is therefore most likely the Gentile city of Rome, not Jerusalem. The same phrase is used in 11.8 referring to Jerusalem: "the great city which is allegorically called Sodom and Egypt, where their Lord was crucified." A similar theme: "On that day his feet shall stand on the Mount of Olives...which shall be split in two from east to west by a very wide valley" [Zech 14.4]. Compare this great divide with Lk 16.26: "between us (Abraham) and you (Lazarus) a great chasm has been fixed in order that those who would pass from here to you may not be able, and none may cross from there to us."

2) Cities of nations fell, most likely those subject to the great Babylon or those within the Roman Empire.

3) God remembered great Babylon, symbol of Rome (cf. 17.9 & 18), that is, "the great city." The Greek text reads: "and great Babylon was remembered (mimnesko) before (enopion) God." The passive has greater force in that Babylon is remembered alike by God and his allies; a permanent (eternal) sense of duration is implied.

4) Islands fled away: "The sky vanished like a scroll that is rolled up, and every mountain and island was removed from its place" [6.14].

5) No mountains were found: cf. 6.14 just above. With the removal of islands and mountains the earth is completely level to receive the great hailstones of the next verse.

6) Great hailstones as the seventh plague: "And the Lord sent thunder and hail, and fire ran down to the earth. And the Lord rained hail upon the land of Egypt" [Ex 9.23]. This plague like the others against Egypt was effected through Moses. Each plague commences with Moses stretching forth his hand which parallels the phiale or bowls of the seven angels. Men cursed (blasphemeo, cf. vss. 9 & 11) God as a result of this hail which in the Greek text is described literally as "great exceedingly." The force of impact is enhanced by two prepositions: "from (ek) heaven" and "upon (epi) men."

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Chapter Seventeen

This and the next chapter deal with the fall of Babylon (Rome) and are filled with implications for readers who were contemporary with the Book of Revelation. Thus salient points will be outlined verse by verse, keeping in mind that these Notes are presented with the intention of reading Revelation in the light of lectio divina, not with a view of presenting historical facts and their various interpretations which may be obtained elsewhere.

-Vs. 1: Chapter Seventeen begins with kai (then, and), another indication of continuous action; the quote begun here by the angel continues through vs. 3. The identity of one of the seven angels having a bowl (cf. previous chapter) is not given. Note that the Greek reads, "came one from (ek) the seven angels," the preposition ek implying, in a sense, that the angels were lined up in a row and that one stepped forth to speak with John. This angel has the purpose of showing (deiknumi) in the sense of revealing with respect to krima or judgment (first use of this word in Revelation). "For the Father loves the Son and shows him all that he himself is doing" [Jn 5.20]. "For judgment I came into this world, that those who do not see may see, and that those who see may become blind" [Jn 9.39]. Vs. one has this krima with respect to the "great harlot" (porne), the verbal root implying immorality (cf. 2.14). She is seated upon "many waters," a phrase reminiscent of the primeval waters of creation: "and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters" [Gen 1.2]. The harlot's "upon-ness" (epi) may be taken as a mockery of the Spirit's creative power. Also note that the serpent "poured water like a river out of his mouth after the woman" [12.15]. The harlot seated (kathemi) on these waters is also a mockery of the "one seated on the throne."

-Vs. 2: to commit fornication or porneuo is used with respect to the earth's kings; cf. 2.20 with regarding Jezebel, the false prophetess. This verse is reminiscent of Ezk 16 which contains an allegory of the unfaithful wife, Jerusalem. Vss. 1-14 depict God finding and then honoring her; vs. 15 has Jerusalem who "played the harlot because of your renown" and because she "trusted in her beauty." Vs. 2 has the noun porneia (fornication) used in terms of being drunk (methusko). "...the servant begins to beat the men servants and the maid servants and to eat and drink and get drunk" [Lk 12.45]. This verse pertains to the delay of the servant's master and may apply to vs. 2 in that those getting drunk on kings' fornication do not trust in Christ's coming but prefer to wait, as it were, and expend their energy on such inebriation. The word for dweller (katoikeo, present active participle used) has the preposition kata prefixed to it, signifying persons who have make earth their permanent home to the neglect of heavenly reality. "...to try those who dwell upon the earth" [3.10].

-Vs. 3: After the angel has spoken with John he carried him away (apophero), that is, from the "place" from which he had been having his visions. Perhaps the place from which John was conveyed was from his position outside the temple (16.1). Direction of this apo movement: "into (eis) a wilderness (eremos);" not just the wilderness but "in (en) the Spirit" (Pneuma). It may take the following outline: apo -> eis -> en; John, of course, was first en the Spirit before his transportation eis the wilderness. Note that eremos is the same as desert which was used in 12.6: "and the woman fled into the wilderness where she had a place prepared by God." In this instance eremos is specified with a definite article made even more specific, as it were, by topos for place; vs. 3 lacks such an article, implying that this eremos lacks presence of the divine. In this wilderness John beholds a woman sitting (kathemi; cf. vs. 1) on an (indefinite) "scarlet beast" (therion; cf. 11.7, etc). Scarlet: kokkinos, symbolic of high rank within the Roman Empire; in the next verse this adjective applies to the woman. Note its use with regard to Jesus Christ who is made by Roman soldiers to be a mockery of honor: "And they stripped him and put a scarlet robe upon him" [27.28]. In the verse at hand, such a beast or Rome has the following: 1) "blasphemous (blasphemia) names" or in Greek, "names of blasphemy." 2) seven heads and 3) seven horns, evocative of the sea therion of 13.1.

-Vs. 4: a description of the woman's adornment, periballo (to array) being the verb with respect to two colors, purple and scarlet, the latter having the color kokkinos as used in vs. 3 with respect to the beast on which she is seated. Compare periballo with its use in 12.1 regarding the "woman clothed with the sun;" this verb means being fully enveloped (by the colors purple and scarlet), as though the beast's native color were transferred into her very being. Furthermore, the woman is bedecked (chrusoo, the only New Testament use) with gold, jewels and pearls, that is, precious objects, the opposite of God on his throne who appeared "like jasper and carnelian...a rainbow that looked like an emerald" [4.3]. For an LXX reference, "And you shall hang it (temple veil) upon four pillars of acacia overlaid with gold" [Ex 26.32]. For a negative use and one parallel to the verse at hand: "And you, O desolate one, what do you mean that you dress in scarlet (kokkinos), that you deck yourself with ornaments of gold" [Jer 4.30]? Finally, the woman of vs. 4 holds a golden cup containing abominations (bdelugma) and impurities (akathartos) which result from her fornication (porneia). Porneia is found in vs. 2 with respect to the "kings of the earth" and their association with this woman. Bdelugma applies to anything foul as in Lk 16.15: "For what is exalted among men is an abomination in the sight of God." In the Old Testament this term pertains to idolatry: "He (King Ahaz) even burned his son as an offering according to the abominable practices of the nations" [2 Kg 16.3].

-Vs. 5: Forehead or metopon as in 7.3 & 14.1, both instances with respect to God's servants; 13.16 refers to the mark of the beast. Also cf. Gen 4.15 and Ex 28.38 with reference to a mark placed on the forehead. In the verse at hand it is "a name of mystery" (musterion), this term being found in 1.20 (seven stars) and 10.7 (seventh trumpet of God). Such mystery relates to "Babylon the great" and is akin to that of 2 Ths 2.7: "The mystery of lawlessness is already at work." Rome as Babylon has two designations regarding such a name: as mother of harlots (pornos) and of earth's abominations (bdelugma, vs. 4). I.e., as mother, Rome/Babylon propagates that which is contrary to true Christian worship.

-Vs. 6: second reference to John seeing (cf. vs. 3), this time shifting action to the woman as drunk (methuo) on the blood of saints and martyrs of Jesus. Note use of preposition ek (from) with respect to these two groups as if to show more vividly the woman's taking of blood. Also, cf. 18.24 & 19.2. Vs. 6 contains a new sentence in conjunction with vs. 7 which has John marveling greatly, an expression comprised of the verb thaumazo and a noun derived from it, thauma. These words are often used in a positive sense with respect to Jesus' actions and miracles. "I did one deed, and you all marvel at it" [Jn 7.21].

-Vs. 7: Mention of the angel, hearkening back to vs. 1 (one of the seven) who seems to be standing beside John as he witnesses these sights. He offers John a solution to his thaumazo of the previous verse, that is, its musterion as pertaining to both woman and beast. This beast (therion) bears (bastazo) the woman, a verb referring to a burden. "Whoever does not bear his own cross and come after me cannot be my disciple" [Lk 14.27]. Compare such bastazo with Christ's same exhortation, "Take my yoke upon you" [Mt 11.29].

-Vs. 8: The angel continues speaking with John, this time about the beast (therion; commonly accepted reference is to the Roman Emperor Nero) who is presented as participating in three sequences of time: past ("was"), present ("is") and future ("is to come"). Perhaps the angel wishes to ratify what John had beheld up to date in his vision and to make sure he identifies the future coming back to life of Nero with this beast which was first mentioned in 11.7. Vs. 8 has the beast first ascending from the bottomless pit (abussos) and then going to perdition (apoleia). Reference to abussos is helpful in light of 9.11: "They (locusts) have as king over them the angel of the bottomless pit." Abussos is different from the tohu of Gen 1.1; it is the place reserved for condemnation, whereas the latter is that from which creation (and presumably abussos) is fashioned. The beast/Nero makes a transferal from this pit which lacks depth (i.e., a bottom) to apoleia which has an alternate meaning: "Enter by the narrow gate; for the gate is wide and the way is easy that leads to destruction, and those who enter by it are many" [Mt 7.13]. In a sense, the beast/Nero fails to heed Christ's words to narrow himself and so comes to perdition.

The second half of vs. 8 comprises a whole unit and refers to dwellers (katoikeo) on earth as cited in vs. 2; i.e., those who make their permanent home on earth. They are equated in 2.13 with the place of Satan's throne and in the verse at hand do not have their names written in the "book of life" which was mentioned in 3.5 & 13.8; also cf. 20.12, 15 & 21.27. As witnesses first they marvel (thaumazo; contrast with John, vs. 6) and then will behold (blepo; contrast their beholding with John's seeing in this chapter) the beast/Nero. Vs. 8 begins with the angel telling John about the beast participating in the three dimensions of time; i.e., he was unaware of it. The same verse attributes knowledge of the beast/Nero as participating in them to those lacking names in the book of life which may be equated with abussos.

-Vs. 9: This verse is an interjection of sorts; most likely John is the person uttering it. Regardless of the fact, the imagery presented so far requires a mind (nous) having wisdom or sophia. The same call for sophia was noted in 13.18 to understand the number 666 which is related to vs. 9. Nous is the faculty not only for intelligence but for feeling and judging. "I of myself serve the law of God with my mind, but with my flesh I serve the law of sin" [Rom 7.25]. The purpose of sophia which governs nous in the verse at hand: to understand the number seven as of the beast's heads which represent the hills (of Rome).

-Vs. 10: Reference to specific historical events, namely, the succession of seven Roman emperors.

-Vs. 11: Reference to an eighth beast (therion) which is included among the seven Roman emperors of vs. 10. The preposition ek is used for among which connotes "from" in that the beast will emerge from the seven rulers. Note its identity, the same of vs. 8 with regard to the three dimensions of time (past, present and future). This eighth beast/emperor is also destined for perdition (apoleia) as in vs. 8.

-Vs. 12: Ten horns (keras) equal ten kings, hearkening back to 10.3, the great red dragon, who also had seven diadems. Reference could be to subordinate governing powers within the Roman Empire. Along with the beast, their power (exousia) lasts one hour (hora). Compare this short duration with "there was silence in heaven for about half an hour" [8.1]. While both are time frames are short, the experience can differ: the former can seem long whereas the latter seem short, depending on a person's disposition and circumstances.

-Vs. 13: "One mind" or gnome, a term implying purpose and intent. For an example of the opposite, cf. 1 Cor 1.10: "but that you are united in the same mind and the same judgement." The oneness of vs. 13 is ironic in that the previous verse speaks of one hour when the ten kings exercise their authority. Their singleness of purpose results in handing over their power (dunamis) and authority (exousia) to the beast. Note that the English translation of this verse has authority for exousia in vs. 12.

-Vs. 14: The ten kings will make war on the Lamb. In the previous verse these rulers give their power and authority to the beast who presumably becomes their leader for the time frame of one hour. Thus the war may be said to last this brief period. Despite the forces of evil which have been arrayed, the Lamb will conquer (nikao). "He who conquers and who keeps my works until the end, I will give him power over the nations" [2.26]. Contrast this exousia with that of vs. 13. This divine victory comes about because the Lamb is both Lord (Kurios, cf. 11.17 & 19.16, 1 Tm 6.15) of lords and King (Basileus) of kings. "Truly, your God is God of gods and Lord of kings, and a revealer of mysteries" [Dan 2.47]. Under the Lamb's command are three types of people or his army as a whole with three characteristics: called (kletos), chosen (eklektos) and faithful (pistos). For the first two words, cf. Mt 22.14: "Many are called but few are chosen."

-Vs. 16: For the burning of the harlot (Rome), cf. Lev 21.9: "And the daughter of any priest, if she profanes herself by playing the harlot, profanes her father, she shall be burned with fire." This verse pertains to conduct of Israel's priests which are implicitly contrasted with those who officiate at Rome's pagan rituals.

-Vs. 17: Implied reference to the one hour duration of vs. 12. Here it is God who effects his purpose (gnome) which is distinct from that of the ten kings in vs. 13. This gnome is "put into their hearts," the preposition eis signifies full presence and direction. Note the word until (achri) with the ten kings having yielded their power to the beast, that is, possibly pertaining to the duration of one hour already mentioned. Achri leads to the fulfillment (teleo, verb; cf. 10.7, 11.7, 15.1 & 8, all concerning temporal duration) of God words (logos, to be compared with Christ as Logos).

-Vs. 18: Basileia: the woman's dominion, the opposite of that belonging to Christ in vs. 14. It is upon (epi) the earth's kings, that is, much as a weight placed upon them. "And the devil took him up and showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time" [Lk 4.5]. Here chronos is used for time; stigme literally being a point. The juxtaposition of these two terms signifies absorption or inclusion with respect to spiritual reality.

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Chapter Eighteen

Vs. 1: After this I saw another angel coming down from heaven, having great authority; and the earth was made bright with his splendor.

The Greek text reads "after these things" (plural), a phrase equivalent to the oft-mentioned kai (and) to signify rapid succession of events. The other angel's descent (katabaino, verb) thus happens immediately; presumably he takes his stand next to one of the seven angels of the previous chapter. He holds "great authority" (exousia), a term important in the last several verses and as contrasted with the ten kings and the Lamb. The angel's exousia is great whereas the Lamb's lacks such an adjective; the latter requires no degree ("great") of authority since he has it in full.

Intimately related to such angelic authority is his splendor (doxa), a term which implies (divine) glory. This radiance brightens (photizo) the earth much like the divine splendor on Mount Sinai. Also cf Num 14.21: "As I live and as all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the Lord." Such doxa is reflected from God to the angel and then to earth. For another reference of photizo, cf. Jn 1.9: "The true light that enlightens every man was coming into the world."

Compare the two uses of the preposition ek: "(angel) coming down from heaven" and "earth was made bright with his splendor."

Verses 2-3 form the angel's announcement or proclamation with regard to Babylon/Rome. The word krazo is used (to cry out, as in 6.10) which has the stronger sense of screaming aloud. The verses may be outlined as follows:

-Fallen (pipto): used twice for emphasis. Cf. 14.8, Is 21.9 & Jer 51.8 with reference to Babylon.

-Dwelling place (katoiketerion): contrast with Eph 2.22: "in whom you are built into it for a dwelling place of God in the Spirit." This noun derives from the verb katoikeo as in 3.10 and connotes those persons who have made the earth into a permanent dwelling as opposed to heaven. In the verse at hand, the dwelling is one of demons (daimon); this is the only use of the word in Revelation. Perhaps allusion is made to the ten kings of the previous chapter as well as their subjects.

-Haunt (phulake) also means prison, a suggestive word intimating confinement with regard to the fallen Babylon. Phulake is used first concerning "foul spirits" (pneuma) and secondly, birds which are similarly foul and hateful. Note the resemblance: a spirit and bird are associated with flying creatures.

-In third place come "all nations;" note the association between being drunk (pino, usually to drink in the ordinary sense) and "impure passion" or thumos as in 17.2 which uses methusko, to be intoxicated. For thumos, cf. 12.12: "for the devil has come down to you in great wrath."

-Phulake may also apply to the kings and merchants of vs. 3, though they are less explicit; both groups are "of the earth" or indirectly associated with those who permanently reside on earth. Cf. katoiketerion and its verbal root katoikeo above, vs. 2. Here is another mention of porneia (cf. 17.2) and strenos or luxury; the latter term paradoxically means excessive strength which thereby effects extravagance.

John next (kai again) hears another voice from heaven; not explicitly from an angel, just an impersonal voice which runs from vs. 4 through vs. 8 and may be outlined as follows:

-Vs. 4: A bidding to come out of Babylon/Rome addressed to "my people," the image being one of returning from exile. Cf. Is 48.20: "Go forth from Babylon, flee from Chaldea, declare this with a shout of joy, proclaim it, send it forth to the end of the earth; say, 'The Lord has redeemed his servant Jacob!'" With this verse in mind, note the three-fold command bound up with this exodus: shout of joy, proclaim and sending the message forth. Contrast "ends of earth" with the"kings of the earth" and "merchants of the earth" of vs. 3. The purpose of the summons in the verse at hand: not to share (sugkoinoneo) in Babylon/Rome's sins and share (lambano; basically, to receive) in plagues. For a parallel with the former verb, cf. Eph 5.11: "Take no part in the unfruitful works of darkness."

-Vs. 5: Sins of Babylon/Rome are heaped (kollao) "high (achri) as heaven;" this verb literally means to stick, to join to, giving the impression that her sins defy the force of gravity...not only this, but they cling above or in an accumulative fashion from earth to heaven. Note the close connection between such sticking and God's remembering of iniquities. For a parallel, cf. Gen 18.20-1: "Because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is great and their sin is very great, I will go down to see whether they have done altogether according to the outcry which has come to me; and if not, I will know." That is to say, God will know whether or not the sins of these two cities has "clung" to his dwelling place, heaven.

-Vs. 6: This verse is addressed to "my people" of vs. 4, asking them to render (apodidomi) or pay back in the same way Babylon/Rome has behaved. "O daughter of Babylon, you devastator! Happy shall he be who requites you with what you have done to us" [Ps 137.8]! The verb requite or shalam (verbal root for shalom or peace) suggests giving back to Babylon the fullness of what she had done to Israel. This is emphasized by preparing a "double draught." Cf. 17.4: "holding in her hand a golden cup full of abominations."

-Vs. 7: The image of "double draught" and "cup" is carried over with regard to a measure (tosoutos, literally, so much) of torment and mourning. This comes about because Babylon/Rome both glorified (doxazo) herself, the opposite of giving doxa to God and being wanton (streniao). This second verb is the verbal root of strenos, luxury, as in vs. 3. The second sentence in vs. 7 has Babylon/Rome saying in her heart (kardia) or inmost being that she is a queen and free from mourning. "Who say in your heart, 'I am, and there is no one besides me; I shall not sit as a widow or know the loss of children;' These two things shall come to you in a moment, in one day; the loss of children and widowhood shall come upon you in full measure" [Is 47.8-9]. Note the suddenness of bereavement: "in a moment, in one day," a kairos event not unlike that brief time of "one hour" when the ten kings wage war against the Lamb.

-Vs. 8: The theme of a brief time continues into this verse when Babylon/Rome sees plagues, pestilence, mourning, famine and being burned "in one day," another kairos event. Cf. 17.16 for a similar description. Vs. 8 concludes the address of that "voice from heaven" begun in vs. 4 with God as Kurios judging (krino) her. This verb is used in 6.10 in the sense of avenging and is posed as a question by those slain by the sword and which here finds fulfillment.

Verses 9 through 19 describe the laments by those groups which have associated with Babylon/Rome (cf. Ezk 26.16+) and may be outlined as follows:

-Vs. 9: Earth's kings (cf. vs. 3) who lewdly associated with her witness the "smoke of her burning (purosis). For the same word in a positive sense: "Do not be surprised at the fiery ordeal which comes upon you to prove you" [1 Pt 4.12]. For a different though parallel context describing the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah: "The smoke of the land went up like the smoke of a furnace" [Gen 19.28].

-Vs. 10: The lament of these kings over the judgment (krisis) of Babylon/Rome. "For the hour of his judgment has come" [14.7]. Both verses refer to swiftness of the divine sentence in terms of one hour or hora, another kairos event as in 17.12. Note that the kings' sorrow takes place while they are far off (apo makrothen) or at a distance; they do not come to her aide.

-Vss. 11-19 contain a lament both by merchants and sailors with regard to Babylon/Rome. The former sums up her passion for material gain by calling it "the fruit for which you soul longed (vs. 14)." Epithumia is used to express this longing; it is related to thumos (passion) as found in 14.8 ("the wine of her impure passion"). "Put on the Lord Jesus Christ and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires" [Rom 13.14]. Such epithumia is the specific reason why merchants and seafarers lamented; they were directly responsible for catering to it. Note that both groups "stood far off" (apo makrothen, vss. 15 & 17; also cf. vs. 10) as they beheld the fate Babylon/Rome.

-Vs. 20: After the lamentation of vss. 9 through 19 comes an interlude of sorts, most likely from the "voice from heaven" of vs. 4 which also had recounted the foregoing downfall of Babylon/Rome. This verse is directed to heaven (ournos), God's dwelling place, as though it were a personal being watching the drama unfold on earth below. Presumably situated there are saints, apostles and prophets who are similarly addressed. Reason for such rejoicing (euphrainomai, cf. 12.12) is divine judgment against Babylon/Rome. The Greek text reads, "God has judged (krino) judgment (krisis)," as to express his strong condemnation. The power to execute such krisis is bestowed (again, presumably by the "voice from heaven") upon heaven, saints, apostles and prophets: not angels but human beings who have had experience on earth with Babylon/Rome.

-Vs. 21: The interlude of the previous verse serves to introduce a "mighty (ischuros) angel" different from "another angel" of vs. 1 and "another voice" of vs. 4. This angel casts a stone resembling a mill stone into the sea, an analogy for "Babylon, the great city." "When you finish reading this book, bind a stone to it and cast it into the midst of the Euphrates and say, 'Thus shall Babylon sink to rise no more because of the evil that I am bringing upon her" [Jer 51.63-4]. Vs. 21 has the angel casting Babylon/mill stone with violence (hormema); i.e., it simply does not fall but is cast with vehemence. Such hormema is heightened by the words, "it shall be found no more." The passive is used which may apply to those viewing Babylon's fate from heaven and earth; this mode implies that it is an all-encompassing event.

-Vss. 22-23 spell out in some detail the effects of Babylon being found no more, (heurethe eti), these words being used five times in reference to the following in the city: harpers, minstrels, flute players, trumpeters, craftsmen, sound of mill stone, lamp light and the voice of bride and bridegroom. Vs. 23 calls merchants the "great men of the earth" by reason of the power they had in their commerce with Babylon. By reason of this commerce, Babylon's influence extended throughout the world, thereby augmenting this city's sorcery (pharmakeia, cf. 9.21), a term which also pertains to the administering of drugs. Thus sorcery and addiction are implied as being one and the same. Planao for to deceive is the result of such "drugs;" the term fundamentally means to wander about aimlessly. "Wandering over deserts and mountains, and in dens and caves of the earth" [Heb 11.38].

-Vs. 24: Another use of the word heurethi (was found) only not in the five senses used in vss. 22-3 with respect to activity associated with Babylon. Vs. 21 has the mighty angel casting Babylon into the sea where it disappeared along with its inhabitants and activity. Despite this disappearance, there seems to remain the blood of prophets, saints and those who have been slain. Because Babylon was hurled into the sea, the collected blood of these groups floats, so to speak, upon the sea as if to leave a trace. The first two categories are persons with a correct relationship with God, whereas the third is not necessarily associated with them. This group, which is spread throughout the earth, appears to have been gathered in Babylon. Sphazo is the verb for to slay in the sense of cutting the throat (cf. 5.9, 13.3) as for sacrifice. I.e., those slain throughout the earth and who have been assembled in Babylon are sacrificed, as it were, making the city's destruction a kind of offering to God.

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Chapter Nineteen

Vs. 1: After this I heard what seemed to be the mighty voice of a great multitude in heaven crying, "Hallelujah! Salvation and glory and power belong to our God.

"After this" (plural in Greek) or another way of expressing kai (and). John is not certain what he heard next, hence what seemed (hos) which was a "great multitude" (ochlos). This term often has negative connotations, implying unruly behavior or those people distinct from upper classes. "And though he (Herod) wanted to put him (John the Baptist) to death, he feared the people" [Mt 14.5]. This ochlos is situated in heaven, that is, above the earth on which had recently unfolded the drama of Babylon/Rome's demise. For a parallel verse: "A great multitude which no man could number...standing before the throne and before the Lamb" [7.9].

The heavenly throng begins a song which continues into the next verse with "Hallelujah," traditional Hebrew expression of praise which introduces three common attributes to God. The Greek text has them refer to God by using the genitive case, i.e., "of God."

Vs. 2: for his judgments are true and just; he has judged the great harlot who corrupted the earth with her fornication, and he has avenged on her the blood of his servants."

Judgments (krisis); cf. vs. 18.20. As being true and just, God effects two things with regard to Babylon/Rome: he judges (krino) the great harlot by reason of her contagious fornication (porneia) and takes vengeance (ekdikeo) not so much on his servants per se but on their blood. Reference to blood was made in 18.24 which was found "floating" on the sea after Babylon's destruction, so edkikeo may be viewed as a kind of divine looking-down from heaven upon this blood. "How long before you will judge (krino) and avenge our blood on those who dwell upon the earth" [6.10]? With this question and desire in mind, vs. 2 is the fulfillment these holy persons' "how long."

This verse brings to a close the words of that "great voice" (vs. 1) which runs from vs. 1 through vs. 2.

Vs. 3: Once more they cried, "Hallelujah! The smoke from her goes up forever and ever."

This verse is an interjection of sorts in that it is not specifically given as issuing from the "great voice" of vs. 1. The once again deuteron linked with kai (and) shows a connection between the first Hallelujah where the heavenly multitude attributes salvation, glory and power to God. In the verse at hand, the second Hallelujah is in direct reference to the destruction of Babylon/Rome.

Lego: to cry, a verb commonly used for simply making an utterance, not necessarily in a strong fashion.

Smoke was mentioned in 18.9 by the earth's kings, reminiscent of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (cf. Gen 19.28).

Vs. 4 has the twenty-four elders and four living creatures joining in the chorus of Hallelujah of vss. 1 & 3, only these two groups add "Amen" as though to state completion of the action (of Babylon/Rome's devastation) wrought by God. Cf. 4.2 & 9, 5.1 & 7 & 13, 6.16, 7.10 & 15, 21.5.

Vs. 5: And from the throne came a voice crying, "Praise our God, all you his servants, you who fear him, small and great."

The introduction of a third voice in Chapter 19, this time coming from the throne and hearkening back to Chapter 4 which introduces the twenty-four elders and four living creatures with respect to the divine throne. I.e., this throne is alive by reason of God sitting upon it. The voice bids four groups of people to praise (aineo) God: servants, those who fear God, small and great. "You who fear the Lord, praise him! Stand in awe of him, all you sons of Israel" [Ps 22.22]! The Hebrew word halal is used here from which is derived alleluia. Also: "He will bless those who fear the Lord, both small and great" [Ps 115.13].

Vs. 6: Then I heard what seemed to be the voice of a great multitude, like the sound of many waters and like the sound of mighty thunder peals crying, "Hallelujah! For the Lord our God the Almighty reigns.

A fourth voice (phone) about which John is not fully certain, the reason for using the words "what seemed" (hos) as in vs. 1 which also pertains to a "great multitude" (ochlos). Perhaps both multitudes are the same; the present one resembling the sound (phone) of many waters. Note the same term used three times with two different nuances: that belonging to the ochlos, many waters and finally "mighty thunder peals" (bronte; cf. 6.1, 10.3, 14.2 and their references to Mt. Sinai). Here bronte equals the exclamation Hallelujah. Reason for such praise is the rule of God as Pantokrator as in 1.8, 4.8, 11.17, 15.3, 16.7 & 14. "And the Lord will become king over all the earth; on that day the Lord will be one and his name one" [Zech 14.9]. "That day" is a kairos event for the present reign of God described in the verse at hand.

Vs. 7: Let us rejoice and exult and give him the glory, for the marriage of the Lamb has come, and his Bride has made herself ready.

"Us" can include the four voices of Chapter 19, the twenty-four elders, the four living creatures, as well as those who fear God (small and great). Refer to 11.15, which then has the elders (vs. 17-18) acknowledging divine supremacy. All the groups of vs. 7 have as their object of rejoicing, exulting (chairo and agalliao) and giving God glory (doxa) the following two elements:

1) the Lamb's marriage (gamos), a precondition being the destruction of Babylon/Rome which had just taken place. Perhaps at this point in the Book of Revelation a shift may be made to the now-present reality of the Song of Songs which describes a wedding. "Go forth, O daughters of Zion, and behold King Solomon with the crown with which his mother crowned him on the day of his wedding, on the day of the gladness of his heart" [Sg 3.11]. Such going forth is imaged by "another voice from heaven" bidding "Come out of her, my people" [vs. 18.4]. These two forms of exits can be seen in light of the Lamb's arrival for his wedding in the verse at hand.

With regard to the marriage preparation, cf. the sentiments expressed in Eph 5.32: "This is a great mystery, and I take it to mean Christ and the church." St. Paul situates this musterion in the context of his just cited verse of Gen 2.24 where a "man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one."

With reference to the bride's preparation (etoimazo, verb), cf. 21.2: "...the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband." Is 61.10 echoes this: "As a bridegroom decks himself with a garland, and as a bride adorns herself with her jewels." The past tense of the verb in vs. 7 (etoimazo) can allude to the saints' trials which Revelation had described to this point.

Vs. 8: It was granted her to be clothed with fine line, bright and pure"-for the fine linen is the righteous deeds of the saints.

Note the passive verb, "it was granted," which is in line with other passive uses of verbs in Revelation; their use suggests divine transcendence almost in a personal fashion as well as the fact that such temporal developments already have been foreseen.

The bride or church (cf. Eph 5.23-32, parts of which were cited in vs. 7) is clothed or periballo (literally, wrapped about in the sense of being totally enveloped) previously used with respect to such bright objects as linen and a cloud (3.5, 7.9, 10.1). In the verse at hand, bussinos is used for fine linen, the material which clothes heaven's armies, 19.12. Note that Babylon/Rome was clothed in bussinos, 18.16. The bride being thus clothed is reminiscent of the same material used with regard to the tent in Ex 26.37: "And you shall make a screen for the door of the tent of blue and purple and scarlet stuff and fine twined linen, embroidered with needlework." This making is enhanced by the Hebrew verb raqam found in Ps 139.15: "intricately wrought in the depths of the earth."

Vs. 9: And the angel said to me, "Write this: Blessed are those who are invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb." And he said to me, "These are true words of God."

The Greek text lacks angel. The command given to John is to record words pertaining to the marriage of vs. 7, that is, something like a list of persons invited. The verb here is kaleo; to reject it is considered discourteous; it refers to those who have been summoned, not necessarily those present. "The kingdom of heaven may be compared to a king who gave a marriage feast for his son and sent his servants to call those who were invited to the marriage feast, but they would not come" [Mt 22.2-3]. To be the object of kaleo is to be the object of blessedness (makarios, adjective); this is one of seven instances in Revelation, the others being 14.13, 16.15, 20.6, 22.7 & 14.

Deipnon: "marriage supper" the term "marriage" not being used in the Greek text. This word gives an indication of the time of day when the celebration is held. Referring to the king's invitation in the last paragraph (Mt 22.2-3), vs. 13 gives a hint that the banquet was held at night: "cast him into the outer darkness." Such darkness is intensified by the use of "outer" and may have deeper significance than a temporal one.

Because deipnon belongs to the Lamb who had been sacrificed, it can be associated with the Passover meal which also took place at night: "when the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall kill their lambs in the evening. Then they shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and the lintel of the house in which they eat them" [Ex 12.6-7].

Vs. 9 has what may be taken as an interlude from the time when John began to write to after he had written. That is, the voice/angel verifies them by saying they are true and belong to God.

Vs. 10: Then I fell down at his feet to worship him but he said to me, "You must not do that! I am a fellow servant with you and your brethren who hold the testimony of Jesus. Worship God." For the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophesy.

This verse resembles 22.8-9; also cf. Acts 10.25-6. Worship (proskuneo) as in 4.10, that is, by the twenty-four elders. Here it is done at the angel's feet or in Greek, emprosthen (in front of). "I will confess his name before my Father and before his angels" [3.5].

The verb horao (to see) coupled with me (not) is used for "You must not do that." The angel says that despite his non-human nature, he is a fellow servant (sundoulos) not only with John but with his brethren; the Greek text has the genitive: "of you" and "of your brethren." All three share the "sun"-(doulos) by reason of their testimony (marturia) with regard to Jesus Christ. "And they have conquered him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony" [12.11]. Because their testimony implies the threat of death, the angel (who is not mortal) participates in this witness.

The angel gives John the proper object of worship (proskuneo), God. Note the dative case coupled with pros, the preposition suffixed to this verb, indicating direction-towards-which.

After the angel's words comes a sentence which equates Jesus' marturia with the spirit (pneuma) of prophecy; pneuma can imply the Holy Spirit or the diffusion of prophecy to those who exercise it on behalf of God. Although Jesus' teaching and miracles are included, reference to his death, resurrection and ascension are suggested. For references to marturia, cf. 1.2 (of Jesus Christ), 6.9 (which they had borne, 12.17 (to Jesus).

Vs. 11: Then I saw heaven opened and behold, a white horse! He who sat upon it is called Faithful and True, and in righteousness he judges and makes war.

The appearance of Jesus Christ and his heavenly armies which John sees; vs. 11 begins with kai, continuous action, this time after he fell at the angel's feet. Compare with 4.1: "in heaven an open door," the same verb anoigoo being used. For a parallel verse, cf. Gen 7.11: "and the windows of the heavens were opened." An obvious reference to rain but the idea of suddenness and full force is contained here as well as in vss. 4 & 11. The same applies to Ezk 1.1 with respect to his vision: "the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God." John's vision is enhanced by idou (behold) which makes the scene more dramatic.

The color white (leukos) is found with reference to a horse in 6.2 which had a rider who set out to conquer. That rider is anonymous whereas the one of the verse at hand is Faithful (Pistos; cf. 1.5) and True (Alethinos, cf. 3.14).

This rider has two functions: to judge (krino) in righteousness (dikaiosune) and to make war (polemeo). Note the present tense regarding both verbs. Two parallel references: "Before the Lord, for he comes, for he comes to judge the earth" [Ps 96.13]. "But with righteousness he shall judge the poor" [Is 11.4]. Vs. 17.14 uses polemeo (future tense) by the ten kings and beast against the Lamb.

Vs. 12: His eyes are like a flame of fire, and on his head are many diadems; and he has a name inscribed which no one knows but himself.

From here through vs. 17 we have a description of the rider. In this verse are three elements:

1) Eyes: resemble a "flame (phlox) of fire" as in 1.14 & 2.18.

2) Contrast the "many diadems" (diadema) with that of the great red dragon who has seven such diadems.

3) Name (onoma): here it is written but its location is not specified. Cf. 3.12 which refers to "my own new name" which is written on a victorious person. Such a name is a clue to the rider's identity despite that he alone knows it. Also 1.17 refers to a new name which is written on a white stone. Peter confesses Christ as "Son of the living God" [Mt 16.16], that is, his name and therefore his divine source. Note that Christ says (vs. 17), "For flesh and blood have not revealed this to you but my Father who is in heaven." In the verse at hand, the exclusive knowledge by the rider regarding his name does not fall under the category of being revealed, something which pertains to human beings, not God.

Vs. 13: He is clad in a robe dipped in blood, and the name by which he is called is The Word of God.

Robe: himation (cf. vs. 16), a garment of any sort or a mantle. Compare this robe having the color of blood with those of the transfiguration: "And he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his garments became white as light" [Mt 17.2]. For a reference pertaining to vs. 13: "Why is your apparel red, and your garments like his who treads in the wine press" [Is 63.2]? The color red is enhanced by eyes/flames of the previous verse; contrast these eyes set against a blood-colored robe with the red dragon having seven heads and therefore fourteen eyes.

The robe is two-fold: periballo (to be clad) or fully enveloped by the robe. "It was granted her to be clothed, with fine linen, bright and pure." Also, dipped or bapto (related to the verbal root for baptism), that is, having been fully immersed in blood. In the only other references to bapto (finger and bread, Lk 16.24 & Jn 13.26), the objects are small yet are fully immersed.

In vs. 12 the rider alone knows his name, but here it is revealed as being God's Logos. "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God" [Jn 1.1]. Perhaps the former implies YHWH as communicated to Moses in Ex 3.14: "I am who am."

Vs. 14: And the armies of heaven, arrayed in fine linen, white and pure, followed him on white horses.

Fine linen: bussinos as in 19.8; here it is white (leukos) as the rider's horse, vs. 11 as well as pure (katharos). The linen of 19.8 is similarly pure but lampros, bright in the sense of being luminous. Both adjectives are not joined by the conjunction "and" but are listed consecutively as if to indicate that they are both of the same nature.

Armies: strateuma, in contrast to those who maltreated Christ: "And Herod with his soldiers treated him with contempt and mocked him; then, arraying him in gorgeous apparel, he sent him back to Pilate" [Lk 23.11]. Two words worth observing here: to array or periballo as in vs. 13 and gorgeous or lampros as noted in the paragraph above. The strateuma are similar to heavenly legions: "Do you think that I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send me more than twelve legions of angels" [Mt 23.11]? Also, strateuma parallel the hosts of heaven: "The Lord of hosts, he is the King of glory" [Ps 24.10]!

The armies are also implied in 14.4 & 17.14 as consisting of human beings, not angels. The color of their horses is similarly white (leukos). The verb to follow (akoloutheo) as in 14.4: "these who follow the Lamb wherever he goes." Also cf. Jn 10.4: "And the sheep follow him, for they know his voice." This second verse may apply within the context of vs. 14 in that the rider/Shepherd calls out various commands to the troops under his command. The locusts of 9.7-10 which resemble horses are the exact opposite of these white horses.

Vs. 15: From his mouth issues a sharp sword with which to smite the nations, and he will rule them with a rod of iron; he will tread the wine press of the fury of the wrath of God the Almighty.

Sword: romphaia as in 1.16, meaning a very large weapon to be wielded with two hands. Such a huge sword would be required to smite nations (ethnos), the Hebrew equivalent of which are the goym, Israel's traditional enemies. 11.2 has the nations treading the Jerusalem temple, presumably the first target of the rider. This romphaia may be contrasted with a verse where hostile forces are presented with similar armament: "spears and arrows, their tongues sharp swords" [Ps 57.4].

For "rod (rabdos) of iron," cf. 2.27 & 12.5 which is based upon Ps 2.9: "You shall break them with a rod of iron and dash them in pieces like a potter's vessel." Vs. 15 has the verb poimaino for to rule which basically means to function as a shepherd.

With regards to the wine press, cf. Is 63.2 (cited under vs. 13 above). Note that in this context the Lord effects a "day of vengeance," that is, a kairos or occasion which he intended. Also, cf. Lam 1.15: "The Lord has trodden as in a wine press the virgin daughter of Judah." This press consists of divine fury (thumos; cf. 12.12 & 14.10) in conjunction with wrath (orge; cf. 6.16); once combined in the limited, compact space of a wine press, these two elements are the strongest possible expression of divine displeasure. Their association with God as being pantokrator (noun used as adjective, almighty; cf. 1.8, 4.8, 11.17, 15.3, 16.7 & 14, 19.6) makes it even more ominous.

Vs. 16: On his robe and on his thigh he has a name inscribed, King of kings and Lord of lords.

The two-fold name, Basileos (King) and Lord (Kurios), to indicate divine sovereignty. Note its context, on the rider as engaged in battle which suggests that he is in the process of winning it, of not having possessed it. For another verse with this two-fold name, cf. 1 Tm 6.15.

The names are written on two places:

1) his robe (imation) as in vs. 13 which had been dipped in blood and is therefore red in color. For a verse with a certain parallel, cf. Jn 19.19: "Pilate also wrote a title and put it on the cross; it read, 'Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.'"

2) his thigh (meros): perhaps a banner of sorts. The rider's robe often may have been swept about him in various positions during the heat of battle, so putting the two-fold name on his thigh is an obvious place. Keep in mind that he is seated on a horse; hence his thigh was easily visible both to his troops and foes. It could be that one name was written on one thigh and the second on the other.

Vs. 17: Then I saw an angel standing in the sun, and with a loud voice he called to all the birds that fly in midheaven, "Come, gather for the great supper of God.

A shift away from the rider on a white horse as indicated by the familiar kai. The angel's words are quoted here through the next verse. John next sees an angel standing in the sun, that is, in its very midst. To see this angel implies that he was either darker than the sun or brighter to discern his outline. He calls (krazo; implies a loud cry) not just birds but those in mid heaven (mesouranema); 8.13 locates in this area an eagle and 14.6 has present an angel, most likely implying birds of prey. This is borne out by a similar verse, Ezk 39.17: "Speak to the birds of every sort and to all beasts of the field, 'Assemble and come, gather from all sides to the sacrificial feast which I am preparing for you, a great sacrificial feast upon the mountains of Israel, and you shall eat flesh and drink blood."

A parallel reference to vs. 17 within the context of a meal, setting the tone for the Eucharist: "The bread which I shall give for the life of the world is my flesh" [Jn 6.51]. The verb sunago (to gather together) implies forming an assembly. "When you are assembled and my spirit is present, with the power of our Lord Jesus" [1 Cor 5.4].

Supper: deipnon as in vs. 9, the context of a marriage supper. Because this meal takes place at evening, the birds which are invited are likewise invited to come to roost for the night.

Vs. 18 gives the menu, as it were, for this supper: kings, captains, mighty men, horses with riders, the free and slave, the small and great...in other words, every category of people. "You may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel" [Lk 22.30]. The verb used here as in vs. 18 is esthio; the former deals with the present act of judging and the latter with it having been accomplished.

Vs. 19: And I saw the beast and the kings of the earth with their armies gathered to make war against him who sits upon the horse and against his army.

The final battle between Christ and his foes (through vs. 21) as anticipated in 16.13-6. 17.17 was the last time the beast or therion had been mentioned, the intervening part having been taken up with the fall of Babylon/Rome and the victory of Christ. There kings entered into a pack with the beast to fight the Lamb which in the verse at hand is about to take place. In 11.7 the beast first makes its appearance, ascending from the bottomless pit. Perhaps the image of him and the armies gathering for war can be situated in this context of coming from the pit, that is, it is as though the kings and their forces were already present there with him.

These forces are directed against the ride on his horse and army; note the singular army (strateuma; cf. vs. 14) as opposed to the plurality of armies belonging to the earth's kings. The beast and his allies gather (sunago), that is, come together against (meta) the rider: they come to him and his forces, not the other way around.

Vs. 20: And the beast was captured, and with it the false prophet who in its presence had worked the signs by which he deceived those who had received the mark of the beast and those who worshiped its image. These two were thrown alive into the lake of fire that burns with brimstone.

A terse description of the conclusive battle between Christ and the beast, perhaps in anticipation between Satan's loosening and the final conflict described in the next chapter. The verse at hand deals not so much with the armies (plural, as opposed to singular army of Christ as noted in vs. 19) but with their two leaders.

Piazo: to capture which implies being arrested. "So they sought to arrest him, but no one laid hands on him because his hour had not yet come" [Jn 7.30]. With the notion of a right time or kairos in mind, we might say that the kairos had come for the beast and false prophet to be arrested. Being apprehended suggests confinement which in this case should be familiar with the beast who came from the confinement of his bottomless pit.

Pseudoprophetos: false prophet mentioned in 16.13 or the second beast of 13.11-15. In 16.13 he along with the beast and dragon issue foul spirits resembling frogs; no mention is made in the verse at hand with regard to the dragon who is seized in 20.2. The false prophet was in the beast's presence or enopion; contrast this presence with two of many examples regarding the divine throne: "from the seven spirits who are before his throne" [1.4]. And: "they (twenty-four elders) cast their crowns before the throne" [4.10]. In contrast to the before-ness of this divine presence the false prophet works signs (semerion) with regard to the before-ness of the beast. "It (beast with two horns like a lamb) works great signs" [13.13].

The signs worked by the false prophet are intended not for the beast's entertainment but for the purpose of deception (planao, verb); cf. 18.23 where Babylon/Rome had deceived all nations by her sorcery, a term related to drugs. The deception is aimed at persons with the beast's mark (charagma; cf. 13.16, 14.9 & 11) and who worship its image (eikon).

Both beast and false prophet are cast alive into lake of fire (cf. 20.10 & 15). "For a burning place has long been prepared; yes, for the king it is made ready, its pyre made deep and wise, with fire and wood in abundance; the breath of the Lord, like a stream of brimstone, kindles it" [Is 30.33]. This verse shows the source, the Lord's breath (neshmath), not pneuma but an outflow from it imparting life. "And breathed into his nostrils the breath of life" [Gen 2.7]. With this in mind, note the paradox in vs. 20: alive (zao) in the lake of fire and neshmath which kindles the brimstone.

Vs. 21: And the rest were slain by the sword of him who sits upon the horse, the sword that issues from his mouth; and all the birds were gorged with their flesh.

Another reference to romphaia (cf. vs. 15); associated with the rider's mouth, such a huge sword may be taken as logoi (words) from which they issue. The birds were gorged (chortazo) as in vs. 17 with regard to the supper and Ezk 39.17 which was quoted there. "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied" [Mt 5.6]. Contrast these dead bodies with in Lk 17.37 which refers to divine judgment: "Where the body is, there the eagles (aetos, more specifically, vulture; cf. 8.13, 12.14) will be gathered together."

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Chapter Twenty

Vs. 1: Then I saw an angel coming down from heaven, holding in his hand the key of the bottomless pit and a great chain.

Kai (and, then) begins a new chapter to introduce the immediate descent from heaven of an angel. This descent (katabaino, verb) is in contrast with the bottomless pit (abussos); not only does the angel descend to earth, but the pit which lacks depth extends even further downwards (cf. 9.1 & 11, 11.7, 17.8). Compare this angel who descended with the star fallen from heaven which has the key to this abussos.

This angel holds two objects in his hand:

1) key or kleis to the abussos, meaning that he has been designated to guard its entrance. Two passages come to mind: "At the east of the garden of Eden he placed the cherubim and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard the way to the tree of life" [Gen 3.24]. And, "I will give you (Peter) the keys of the kingdom of heaven" [Mt 16.19]. Compare the plural keys of this verse with the singular key of vs. 1. Also cf. 1.18: "I have the keys of Death and Hades."

2) "great chain" or alusis which refers to either handcuffs or leg irons. "And no one could bind him (man with an unclean spirit) anymore, even with a chain" [Mk 5.3]. The next verse refers to this restraint of the dragon.

Vs. 2: And he seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the Devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years.

The dragon (drakon) is identified as an "ancient serpent" (ophis). He makes his first appearance in 12.3 as being colored red, having seven heads and ten horns and seven diadems on his multiple heads. Later in 12.9 the dragon is called "that ancient serpent who is the Devil and Satan." Thus the verse at hand hearkens back to these two verses to recap, as it were, what transpired in the interim period.

The angel's binding of the dragon suggests use of that alusis of vs. 1. If the dragon resembles a serpent and therefore has the sleek characteristic of a snake's body, it would be difficult to attach any restraint. The time frame or kairos is one thousand years, symbolic of the martyrs' reign with Jesus Christ.

Vs. 3: and threw him into the pit and shut it and sealed it over him, that he should deceive the nations no more until the thousand years were ended. After that he must be loosed for a little while.

A continuation of the angel's action begun in the previous verse. Here the abussos is not only shut but sealed (sphragizo), a sign of authority. "And a stone was brought and laid upon the mouth of the den, and the king sealed it with his own signet and with the signet of his lords, that nothing might be changed concerning Daniel" [Dan 6.17]. And, "So they went and made the sepulcher secure by sealing the stone and setting a guard" [Mt 27.66]. In the second verse Christ's tomb is secured primarily by the seal and then by the guard, thereby indicating the importance of this seal.

Once the symbolic term of a thousand years has been reached, the seal is broken (cf. 6.1 where the Lamb opens one of the seven seals) and the dragon emerges. This period of time comes to an end (teleo), he is loosened. The verb teleo connotes the bringing to perfection or attaining the right time or kairos of a situation. "The mystery of God...should be fulfilled" [10.7].

Luo: to loosen; compare alusis (chain) in vs. 1 which has alpha privative to indicate that which is not loosened. This setting free after the kairos of a thousand years sets the stage for another kairos of a "little while" (chronos) described in vss. 7-10. Chronos or chronological time is used which from the divine point of view is limited. "For a day in your courts is better than a thousand elsewhere" [Ps 84.10].

It is helpful to keep in mind that when various periods of time are mentioned in Revelation, John perceived them as one when he "was in the Spirit on the Lord's day" [1.10], that is, Sunday, which itself is the primary Christian kairos compared with the other six days (of creation).

Vs. 4: Then I saw thrones and seated on them were those to whom judgment was committed. Also I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded for their testimony to Jesus and for the word of God, and who had not worshiped the beast or its image and had not received its mark on their foreheads or their hands. They came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years.

John's vision consists of two sections in this lengthy verse. First he saw thrones, not the first time he beheld them. Due to the importance of this word in Revelation, the most important references are listed as follows: 1.7; 2.13 (Satan's); 3.21, 22; 4.2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10; 5.1, 6, 7, 11; 6.16; 7.9, 10, 11, 15, 17; 8.3; 12.5; 13.2 (dragon's); 14.3; 16.10 (beast's), 17; 19.4, 5; 20.4, 11, 12; 21.3, 5; 22.1, 3.

The number of thrones of this verse is not specified yet belong to persons to whom judgment (krima) had been entrusted. "Come, I will show you the judgment of the great harlot who is seated upon many waters" [17.1], that is, judgment against Babylon/Rome. "...and sit on thrones judging (krino) the twelve tribes of Israel" [Lk 22.30]. Christ is speaking about his twelve disciples, one for each tribe. Also, cf. Mk 10.40: "But to sit at my right hand or my left (i.e., on thrones) is not mine to grant, but it is for those for whom it has been prepared." In brief, the plurality of thrones in vs. 4 can infer that those sitting on them will participate in the disciples' judgment.

The second part of John's vision pertain to souls (psuche) of persons who had been beheaded, possibly having in mind those souls under the altar (cf. 6.9), although they are not specified as having been beheaded. The group in the verse at hand did not worship the beast nor accept his mark (cf. 13.16-7). "He (King Herod) sent and had John beheaded in the prison" [Mt 14.10]. Pelekizo is used in vs. 4, to behead with an axe, the accepted form of Roman capital punishment; apokephalizo (a term with a more literal meaning) is used with regard to John and does not necessarily imply an axe.

The coming to life of those who had been beheaded is reminiscent of Ezekiel's vision of the dry bones which God brought back to life (37.1-14), "an exceedingly great host" (vs. 10). Once revived, these persons reigned (basileuo