Origen, Gregory of Nyssa and Bernard of Clairvaux

Christian spirituality has long recognized the importance of the biblical Song of Songs throughout the Church's long history. Indeed, much ink has been spilled over the centuries in an endeavor to decipher its obscure words. This attempt to spiritually interpret what obviously appears as a poem of human love may appear naive, even strained, to modern sensibilities. Such a point of view is valid, and one gets the impression that by favoring our spiritual nature to the detriment of our corporality, ancient and medieval commentators on the Song have twisted its original meaning. In addition, the allegorical process favored by so many of these interpreters tended to over spiritualize its words in an attempt to disclose the divine presence in the text's obscurest details. While the intent was noble, its flights of fancy were occasionally the product of a fertile imagination than divine inspiration. Thus our modern sensibility recoils at artificial attempts to depict one reality in terms of another quite different from it. To obtain valid insights obscured by this forest of allegorical interpretation, a world generally foreign to us, requires patience and demands sensitivity to older methods of analysis. We also discover that a certain arrogance may be present in our attitude towards ancient texts, frequently assuming that our modern scientific tools have unmasked everything there is to know about them. However, closer examination discloses that insights into spiritual reality, regardless of time and cultural expression, have a universal, ageless attraction in that they directly communicate a desire for transcendent reality.

In light of this appeal, we at the threshold of the twenty-first century for some time now have been witnessing a renewal in the spiritual life once considered the exclusive province of cloistered monastic life. This interest arising chiefly from lay persons behooves us to reexamine those documents enshrined in the Christian tradition which best communicate the love of God. One modest attempt at keeping in line with this desire is my analysis of the three Commentaries on the Song of Songs by Origen, Gregory of Nyssa and Bernard of Clairvaux. The first two Commentaries have the advantage of having been composed while the Church was still undivided and young, despite the fact that even then it was afflicted by heresies. They may also be characterized by a more "Greek" or Orthodox approach with greater emphasis upon discovering the image and likeness of God within the believer. Bernard's Commentary comes later and was written in a different tradition, Western Christendom, when the Church was a dominant force in people's lives. In a sense we can identify more with Bernard's world view despite the fact that recent decades have seen a radical diminishment of ecclesiastical influence. Enough people are still alive who recall a time when greater clarity existed and society enjoyed a fairly general allegiance to theological and moral principles. Bernard is also an important link with Origen and Gregory of Nyssa in that he, a Latin writer, underscores that a person is made in God's image. Such an approach is characteristic of early Cistercian authors (12^th century), namely, William of St. Thierry and Aelred of Riveaulx.

I approach the three Commentaries on the Song of Songs by Origen, Gregory of Nyssa and Bernard of Clairvaux by presenting certain key words and concepts both common to all three as well as particular to each author. As a part of this effort I have already assembled a list of important citations from the works of these men independent of this study. It may be found on the Gregory of Nyssa Home Page, www.ucc.uconn.edu~/das93006/nyssa.html ⁽¹⁾ which enables the reader to better understand the elements which contributed to their texts. As a complement to my analysis, the reader should refer to a related study, also on the same Home Page, which contains all the biblical references to each Commentary. By employing these documents as a single study aide, the reader is in a better position to comprehend both the originality of each writer as well as those similarities they share.

One practical suggestion for obtaining better insight into the Commentaries is to meditate upon the biblical citations with a view towards reconstructing each text, as it were, in light of the Song verses to which they allude. In this way you have better access to the author's mind while pondering a given verse from the Song of Songs as each man must have done. Perhaps after gaining some familiarity with all the texts involved through the word studies and excerpts both in this document and through others on the Gregory of Nyssa Home Page, you can not only appreciate the three Commentaries but be in a position to compose your own ⁽²⁾. This approach also enables the reader to appreciate not only how sacred scripture inspired our authors but how the culture and philosophies of these earlier centuries impinged upon their interpretations. Certainly we would be affected by comparable influences if we were to write a commentary today. ⁽³⁾

Even the casual reader will note that the Commentaries by Origen and Gregory of Nyssa share a closer link not only by proximity of time but through the pervasive Hellenic culture of this period. In fact, Gregory, who wrote in the fourth century, acknowledges in his Prologue an indebtedness to his second century predecessor: "Although Origen laboriously applied himself to the Song of Songs, we too have desired to publish our efforts" (13.3 ⁽⁴⁾). The third Commentary by Bernard of Clairvaux stands apart from those of his two illustrious predecessors not only by reason of time and culture but by a more affective, less Platonic treatment of the biblical text. Bernard's approach may be characterized by parresia coupled with a shameless expression of emotion, or to use a Latin term with a related meaning, affectus. This parresia, a Greek word used in the New Testament which implies boldness or freely speaking one's mind as a member of a democratic state. Through such parresia the abbot of Clairvaux gives free reign to a whole variety of emotions, a process we do not usually associate with scriptural commentators, even though they adopt a spiritual and allegorical stance ⁽⁵⁾. Furthermore, Bernard's affective treatment may not appeal to all audiences, but his appealing Latin style of writing--difficult to translate into a modern language--wonderfully communicates an exuberance for things divine which aroused an entire generation eager to follow in his footsteps. I believe it was the noted Benedictine scholar, Jean Leclerq who observed that the Cistercian monks (of whom Bernard was a member) forsook everything to follow Christ except the ability to write well! Certainly this is true of the abbot of Clairvaux and his immediate disciples.

Although other Christian Commentaries on the Song of Songs exist, the three I consider here are in many ways the most influential, having impacted Christian spirituality in a special manner. Actually it was Origen, the acknowledged master of the spiritual life, who set the tone for subsequent commentaries by clearly situating the biblical Song as a love poem between Jesus Christ (the Bridegroom) and the soul or Church as Bride. The following quotation from a modern day commentary on the Song of Songs helps to delineate the approach to these three authors I adopt: "As we find ourselves approaching the metaphorical gates of eternal life, we find in ourselves an even greater need than before to transcend intellectual knowledge by a more poetic sense of Christ's presence" (italics are mine) ⁽⁶⁾. I am fond of this relatively unknown study by a convert from Orthodox Judaism to Catholicism because I had the opportunity of having had several long conversations with him. Immediately I was struck by Charles' insight and devotion to Jesus Christ, especially through the medium of the Hebrew scriptures. This modern text, similar to the masterpieces to be considered here, were all composed as genuine effusions of the Holy Spirit; they demonstrate that timeless wisdom which transcends space and time and speak to a broader audience.

Any genuine attempt to follow in the steps of Jesus Christ is plagued by difficulties, and sound guidance is needed to avoid pitfalls along the way. Origen, Gregory and Bernard were aware of these dangers which is why they graded our experience of estrangement from God according to the three books of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs and the Song of Songs. The first book concerns the "vanity" of life; the second, the acquisition of wisdom; and the third, the fruitition of a mature relationship with Jesus Christ. This division corresponds to three general teachings on the spiritual life which in subsequent centuries developed into the purgative, illuminative and unitive ways. Each author acknowledged the progressive nature of the spiritual life, especially Gregory of Nyssa, and took pains to lead their readers into deeper insights concerning Christian doctrine. Any experienced practitioner will concede that the three steps are not fixed; rather, they are interchangeable. No matter how much one advances along the path of perfection symbolized by the Song of Songs, there always remains room for purification (Ecclesiastes) and the accretion of wisdom (Proverbs).

Perhaps one of the most genuine characteristics of a truly spiritual commentary on sacred scripture is the author's insatiable desire for a life infinitely better than we can now imagine. Such an other-worldly sentiment is typical of authentic spirituality, although a more materialistic culture obviously finds difficulty with this outlook. However, to a seeker intent upon achieving union with God, this other-worldliness directly appeals first to one's heart and secondly, to the intellect. Often our minds must race to catch up with the impassioned words which such treatises communicate; hence a continual need for guidance offered in the first two books, Ecclesiastes, Proverbs.

Persons smitten by intense love and longing for heaven--more specifically, their desire for union with the person of Jesus Christ--are constantly on the look-out for creating images or analogies which re-present...make present again...the object of their love. They, to quote Charles Rich again, seek "a more poetic sense of Christ's presence." Even apparently insignificant observations from the created realm suffice to communicate or at least to reveal hints about the source of their fervent aspirations. Gregory and Bernard are celebrated for flights of allegorical fancy along this line, whereas Origen is a bit more restrained in his two shorter treatises on the Song. This is true despite the fact that the former two authors attribute their inspiration for analogical representation to the second century master.

It should be noted that the infusion of a love so intense and transcendent grabs the heart like nothing else and frustrates our aspiration to describe that which is essentially indescribable. This experience has one of the best possible expressions through marital imagery; it compels us reach to seek metaphors and analogies which give voice to what has touched us so deeply ⁽⁷⁾. Along this line, a quick glance at manuscripts from early Christian centuries demonstrates time and again the human aspiration to circumscribe that which is essentially uncircumscribable by using the most intimate human analogies possible. This need to come up with a description of transcendence is rooted in our experience of the physical world; it is a limitation which frustrates our deep-seated impulse to give voice to what had struck us so profoundly. For example, when we have a sentiment of either joy or depression, we automatically seek to voice it through those physical means at hand which best correspond to our inner experience. Joy is affiliated with elation, bright or light colors, whereas gloom assumes dark colors and is associated with images related to the preposition "down." These sentiments are so pervasive and come so naturally that we hardly advert to the inner processes when they assume, as it were, a geographical outline.

The procedure of creating metaphors is an important means of overcoming that gap between the outer world and our inner lives and lies at the heart of any attempts to achieve union with God. Awareness of this process is helpful when reading unfamiliar texts as the three Commentaries under consideration. One could even make a diagram of the various ways each man employed metaphors through, for example, the four cardinal points of the compass such as up (heaven), down (hell), left (condemnation) and right (justification), to mention a few broad categories with moral and theological implications.

Closely allied with the emergence of any metaphor or analogy is that ill-defined yet persistent desire we have to make comparisons, of comparing what we know against what we do not yet know. This process is especially acute when it comes to such radically different realities as our familiar, physical realm and the wholly transcendent nature of the spiritual one. The tendency to compare lies in the background of our awareness and can rarely if ever be satisfied, for once we have hit upon an adequate representation (at least for the moment), we remain on the watch to develop it further. One only has to look, for example, at Gregory of Nyssa's Song Commentary where he creates a metaphor, develops it within a given context, yet comes to the conclusion that all his metaphors woefully fall short of expressing divine reality. Such a chasm does not create despair; rather, it lies at the heart of any authentic religious experience which can never fathom the mystery of God's word.

I have digressed a bit on the impact of metaphors and analogies because Origen, Gregory and Bernard use them copiously. Their enthusiasm for this approach may dismay a reader uninitiated into the allegorical method favored by most commentators on scripture, ancient or medieval. For this reason I have decided to insert a number of key words or concepts usually found in or associated with all three Commentaries. From there I proceed to analyze the word within a broader context and make occasional reference to other related patristic texts. In this fashion I hope to give the reader a more comprehensive snapshot of not only how each author used a given word but to compare its use by all three men.

Please note that this document is relatively long for a Home Page (which contains similarly long works!) yet remains incomplete because at a later time I intend to fill out and expand numerous passages and concepts already cited. The advantage of posting such a work in process on the Internet is that one can modify it quickly and with as much frequency as desired.

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One theme common to all three Commentaries is the authors' desire to overcome a separation with God. Western culture has interpreted this gulf as the result of sin or alienation which has been transmitted down to the present since the origins of the human race. As noted above, the step by step process of rectifying our estrangement traditionally has been traced by following the path laid out by the three biblical books, Ecclesiastes, Proverbs and the Song of Songs. Such a restoration culminates with the imagery of marriage, a basic instinct common to us all and one which our authors have exploited brilliantly. ⁽⁸⁾ Despite their world-denying outlook, Origen, Gregory and Bernard recognize the urge to seek a mate of the opposite sex as located in the depth of our being; they consider it to be the bedrock upon which all other human relationships are grounded. Bernard of Clairvaux wonderfully sums up the impulse for marriage as based upon Gen 2.23-4: "'This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.' Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother and cleaves to his wife, and they become one flesh." ⁽⁹⁾ Bernard of Clairvaux describes our natural impulse in his customary vivid language as follows:

This bond (nexus, referring to marriage) is stronger even than nature's firm bond (vinculum) between parents and children. "For this," it says in the Gospel, "a man will leave his father and his mother and cleave to his bride" [Mt 19.5]. You see how strong this feeling (affectus, an important word in Cistercian spirituality; references listed below) is between bride and bridegroom; it is stronger not only than other affections (affectibus), but even than itself. Sermo 83.3

Since marriage entails an ongoing relationship of two persons of the opposite sex, constant opportunity is present for deepening this alliance beyond initial physical attractions. Our three authors find in such a relationship a living exemplar of how the Christian should relate to Jesus Christ; from early on they had posited Christ in the guise of a divine Bridegroom who associates with his Bride (she is either the individual person or Church as a whole). Here is where the Latin term affectus (roughly, "affection") as developed by Bernard plays an important role as cited in the passage above. We find evidence of its definition in Sermon 67.3:

If you will, speak to us, to our understanding, tell us clearly what you feel. How long will you keep us in expectation? Is your secret to be for you alone? It is thus: it is the affectus, not the intellect, which has spoken, and it is not for the intellect to grasp...The affectus have their own language, in which they disclose themselves even against their will. Fear has its trembling, grief its anguished groans, love its cries of delight.

When considering the biblical Song of Songs, we discover that the two spouses relate in various circumstances through an alteration of presences and absences from each other. These alterations give rise to a whole range of emotions and desires which may be categorized as affectus where we see either joy at finding a spouse or dejection resulting from absence. Clearly as Bernard states, affectus "disclose themselves even against their will (etiam cum nolunt, produnt)," that is to say, they transcend logic our attempts to control their expression. After having experienced several of these shifts of joy and sadness, a clearer realization dawns that the pattern of mutual relationship (as noted by our commentators) can only find fulfillment when the spouses become one. Gregory of Nyssa concludes his Commentary on this theme where he frequently alludes to chapters fourteen through seventeen of St. John's Gospel. An example of this unity are found in his concluding words:

Everyone is drawn to desire what they bless and praise, so the daughters praise the Dove [i.e., the Holy Spirit, union of Father and Son] and desire by all means to become doves. And the fact that they praise the dove shows their zeal to attain what they praise until all become one. All will look to the same goal, and every evil will be destroyed. God will be all in all, and all persons will be united together in fellowship of the Good, Christ Jesus our Lord. 468-69

Note the italicized words: "drawn to desire" (te epithumia sunteinesthai) and "desire" (epithumousi) where Gregory employs the Greek word epithumia twice in conjunction with the verb sunteino. We may infer a correspondence here with Bernard's use of the Latin affectus "not produced by the processes of the mind but by spontaneous impulses (erumpere motu, 67.14)" which continues along the same line as mentioned above. Gregory is justly famous for the word epektasis, also derived from (sun)teino, which implies a continuous stretching forward ⁽¹⁰⁾. Such are the affectus of St. Bernard which are also unlimited as the following excerpt reveals from his Song Commentary shortly after he states "Love exists in action (actus) and in feeling" (affectus):

How, then, should that be ordered which can in no way be fulfilled? Or if you prefer to hold that affective love (affectuali) has been commanded, I do not dispute it, provided you agree with me that in this life it can never and will never be able to be fulfilled by any man. Sermo 50.2

Such inability for fulfillment is characteristic of Gregory's epektasis, but it is a fulfillment which find consummation in the constant striving towards God. All three Commentaries struggle in various ways with overcoming the tension of presence versus absence, a predicament familiar to anyone on the spiritual path which has its human complement in a love relationship with a person of the opposite sex. Such anxiety can be resolved by a sensitivity which allows for both having access to and respect for the subjectivity of another person with his or her consent; again, the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes impart the necessary training for these interpersonal relationships.

We find scriptural reference to the appropriation of divine life through the Pauline theme of being "in Christ." For example, refer to Ephesians 1.3-14 where this phrase occurs numerous times ⁽¹¹⁾. When you are "in" something (air or water or a room or especially "in" another person's presence), you are not necessarily conscious of it but are simply conscious along with (i.e., "in") it as the references from Ephesians demonstrate so well. This harmony with a presence which we first perceive as separate from ourselves and then appropriate has degrees of intensity (consider the presences and absences of the bridegroom in the Song of Songs), a case at hand being the context of a marital relationship. Perhaps for this reason Gregory of Nyssa calls the person seeking God a "dove;" this bird flies every which way and is symbolic of the Holy Spirit who "flies in between" the Father and Son and who, in turn, imparts an infinite variations of his relationship to us.

This constantly changing relationship which consists of shifts between absences and presences, mostly on the part of the divine Bridegroom with respect to his human bride (both the individual and the collective or Church), serves to increase our longing for him. The emotion of desire, expressed most accurately by Bernard's use of affectus, plays a central role in each of the three Song Commentaries, and for this reason it is helpful to present a fairly comprehensive list of references. Each excerpt here as well as those throughout this essay, requires comparison and cross referencing with other important words to which they are related ⁽¹²⁾:

Origen

...the power of love (amoris vim) is none other than that which leads (perducat) the soul from earth to the lofty heights of heaven (ad fastigia caeli celsa perfucat), and that the highest beatitude (ad summam beatitudinem) can only be attained under the stimulus of love's desire (amoris desiderio provocante). Prol 2.1

...but the desire and love of (cupidine et amore) him who bears the image of the heavenly (imaginem caelestis, cf. 1Cor 15.49) according to the inner man (interiorem hominem) are heavenly (caelesti). Prol 2.16

It seems to me that the Divine scripture is anxious to avoid (volens cavere ne lapsus) the danger of the mention of love becoming an occasion of falling for its readers...it uses a more respectable word (honestiore vocabulo) for that which the wise men of the world called desire or passion (cupido seu amor)--namely, charity or affection (caritatem vel dilectionem). Prol 2.20

Occasionally, however, though rarely it calls the passion of love by its own name (proprio vacabulo amorem nominat), and invites and urges (incitat) souls to it; as when it says in Proverbs about Wisdom: "Desire (adama) her greatly and she shall preserve thee; encompass (circumda) her, and she shall exalt thee; honour her, that she may embrace (amplectatur) thee" [Prov 4.6, 8]. Prol 2.23

...the soul whose only desire (cuius omne studium sit coniungi et consociari) is to be united to the Word of God and to be in fellowship with Him, and to enter into the mysteries of His wisdom and knowledge (intra mysteria sapientiae eius ac scientiae) as into (intrare) the chambers of her heavenly Bridegroom. I.1.9

We shall make use of a like interpretation whenever we transfer these words to every individual soul that is fixed in the love of the Word of God and in desire for Him (in amore et desiderio Verbi Dei positam transferatur hic sermo). I.3.12

She desires (cupiens) just that time when the light is poured out on the world more copiously (copiosius) , when the day is pure and the daylight clearer and brighter (merus est dies et purior ac florulentior lux). II.4.15

...desiring (cupiens) to apprehend (apprehendere) the things that are before and to forget (oblivisci) those that are behind [cf. Phil 3.13]. II.5.9

For every now and then particles of light are shed upon the deeper mysteries (de secretioribus mysteriis) for those too who are being thus instructed, so that they may conceive desire for higher things (ut desiderium concipiant maiorum); for no one can even desire (desiderari) a thing of which he has no knowledge whatsoever. II.8.35

Understand the breasts, as we told you before, as the ground of the heart (principale cordis) in which the Church holds Christ, or the soul holds the Word of God, fast bound and tired to her by the chains of her desire (desiderii sui vinculis alligatum tenet et adstrictum). II.10.11

His bride the Church desires (concupiscit) to sit beneath the shadow of the apple tree, in order, surely, that she may be made partaker (particeps) of the life that is in His shadow (umbra). III.5.12

For the Word of God becomes all these things to each and every one as the capacity or the desire of the participant requires (prout mensura vel desiderium participantis exposcit). III.8.11

For herein lies the loving Bride's perfection (amantis sponsae perfectio), that she desires (velit) nothing to be done by anyone against the mind and will (animos et voluntatem) of her Beloved (quem diligit). III.10.2

The Bridegroom is thus sometimes present (nunc praesens) and teaching, and sometimes He is said to be absent (nunc absens); and then He is desired (desideratur). III.11.17

When she is trying to understand something (quaerit aliquem sensum) and desiring to know some obscure and secret matters (agnoscere obscura quaeque et arcana desiderat) , as long as she cannot find what she is looking for, the Word of God is surely absent (absens) from her. III.11.18

...when the Word of God calls out the soul, and leads her forth from bodily concerns and physical perceptions (educens eam a corporalibus negotiis et corporeis sensibus docere), He desires to teach her about the mysteries of the age to come (de futuri saeculi mysteriis cupit). IV.2.20

Gregory of Nyssa

[Proverbs] draws the child by yearning and desire (epithumia kai potho) to participate in the good (pros ten ton agathon metousian dianastenai). 19.7

With these and other such exhortations Solomon has inflamed the desire (to epithumetikon anaphlexas) of the one still young according to the inner man (kata ton eso anthropon). 21.16

For the hope of being loved in return (he elpis tou antagapethenai) disposes the lover to a more intense desire (eis epithumian ton erasten diatithesi). 22.2

When the virgin receives all these divine gifts from the noble bearers who bring them through their prophetic teaching, she both confesses her desire (epithumian) and hastens to enjoy the favor (epispeudei ten charin) of the beauty of the One she so eagerly desires (pros meizona ten numphen epithumian dierethizousai). 24.12

For God alone is truly sweet (gluku) , desirable (epithumeton) and worthy of love (epithmias). The present enjoyment of God is the starting point for a greater share of his goodness, and it increases our desire for him (aphorme meizonos epithumias ginetai te metousia ton agathon ton pothon sunepiteinousa). 31.5

So it is with all others in whom the desire for God (ho theios pothos dia bathous) is deeply embedded: they never cease to desire (epithumias), but every enjoyment of God (pan to theothen eis apolausin) they turn into the kindling of a still more intense desire (hupekkauma tes sphodroteras epithumias). 32.2+

The more it enjoys (emphoreitai) his beauty, the more its desire for him increases (tosouto sphodroteron tois pothois akmazousa). 32.7

So too with regard to the divine beauty (tou theiou kallous): both the person who is still an infant tossed abut by every wind of doctrine and the aged person approaching death are incapable of desire (akinetoi pros ten epithumian). 38.15

...God foresees (problepsamenou) something even better in store for her, namely, the prelude of her enjoyment (pothon) might flare up her desire (ten epithumian autes anaphlexeien he anabole tes apolauseos) into something stronger. Thus her desire (potho) may intensify her gladness. 63.8

You see that desire (he epithumetike dunamis) is placed in you to create a longing (pothon) for the apple tree whose enjoyment (apolausis) is manifold for those who have approached it. 119.5

The Song of Songs now leads us to desire a contemplation of the transcendent good (eis epithumian agei tes ton huperkeimenon agathon theorias). At the same time it causes pain (lupen) in our souls when we recognize that we cannot grasp this good. 137.5

Thus as she progresses, her desire grows (epithumian sunauxesthai) with each step. 159.8

Now you too must show a perfect disposition (teleian katastasin) for desiring to rise to what is better (pros to kreitton anadou ten epithumian). 161.7

No longer can the wall of the Law separate her from union with the one she desires (pros ten sunapheian tou pothoumenou diateichizetai). 168.12

But the mind running on high through its understanding of transcendent reality (dia tes ton huperkeimenon katanoeseos epi to ano trechonta noun) should realize that all perfection of knowledge (pasan teleioteta gnoseos) attainable (ephikten) by human nature is only the beginning (arche) of a desire for more lofty things (ton hupseloteron epithumias). 180.7

Since our desire (epithumia) for carnal things in the body's members is subject to passion (empathes) and defilement, like a band of robbers it ambushes the mind (noun), captivates it and carries away the will. 191.13

If anyone desires (epithumetes) the text's hidden marrow, let him seek it from the One who reveals (apokaluptontos) the hidden mysteries (ta kekrummena) to those who are worthy. 193.12

After hearing the unutterable mysteries of paradise (ten arreton ton tou paradeisou musterium akroasin), Paul still continued to move higher and did not cease to ascend (anabaseos). He never allowed the good already attained to limit his desire (epithumias). 245.22

For the person dead to both passion and desire (tais epithumiais) transfers (metoisei) the outward meaning of the Song's words to that which is pure and undefiled. 262.15

For those who desire (epithumia ten pros to theoion eche rhopen) God, a good not shadowed over (anepiskoteton) by anything awaits them. 313.24

Our Lord has given us precepts to make the disciples desire the transcendent (pros ten epithumian ton huperkeimenon) once they have shaken off as dirt every material element from their nature. 315.18

...she flies like a dove and rests with desire (meta epithumias epanapausetai) under the apple tree's shadow. 324.6

However, his hand reaches inside and rouses the bride's desire (apsasthai tes epithumouses) for seeing him. 333.9

But as great and exalted as he was with such experiences, Moses still had an insatiable desire for more (eti aplestos tes epithumias). 356.1

I believe that we are taught that the person desiring (epithumon) God can behold the desired One (ton pothoumenon) by always following him. 356.13

The soul which looks to God (pros ton theon) and conceives that desire (pothon) for incorruptible beauty always has a new desire for the transcendent (pros to huperkeimonon eithumian) , and it is never dulled by satiety (koro). 366.12

Because the desire (tou pothoumenou) for her beloved is frustrated, her yearning (epithumian) for his beauty cannot be fulfilled (anapolauston). 369.21

But the veil of despair is removed when the bride learns that the true satisfaction of her desire (he alethes tou pothoumenou apolausis) consists in always progressing in her search and ascent (medepote tes anadou pausethai): when her desire (epithumias) is fulfilled it gives birth to a further desire for the transcendent (epithumian tou huperkeimonou). 370.1

...that we may know him by the shaft of love which wounded your heart and intensified your desire (ton pothon epauxousa) for him through a sweet pain (dia tes glukeias odunes). 380.5

With her veil now removed, the bride sees with pure eyes the ineffable (aphraston) beauty of her spouse and is wounded by a spiritual, fiery shaft of desire (belei tou erotos). For love (agape) which is aroused is called desire (eros). 383.8

Out of desire for the transcendent good (dia ten ton huperkeimenon agathon epithumian), the cares of this life are nullified and put to death. 404.24

Bernard of Clairvaux

I do not wish to be suddenly on the heights, my desire (volo) is to advance by degrees (paulatim). 3.4.15

It is a wholly love, the impulse of an upright spirit rather than of carnal desire (in concupiscentia carnis). 7.3.17

Her desire is to be kissed (gestit in oscula), she asks for what she desires (petit quod cupit). 7.8.22

It is desire (desiderio) that drives me on, not reason (ratione). 9.2.11

But there is another ointment...made from the gifts of God...refined in the heart's receptacle with the pestle of frequent meditation (in vasculo pectoris pistillo crebrae meditationis contusa atque contrita), all of them fused together in the fire of holy desire (igne sancti desiderii). 10.7.11

This languor drains the color from the countenance, and makes the soul swoon with desire (defectus in desiderio animae). 28.13.26

...to these there is nothing more desirable (desiderabilius) that they wish to see, nothing more enticing (delectabilius) that they could see. Can their eager appetite (aviditas), then, ever grow weary or that sweetness (suavitas) ebb away? 31.1.24

For the various desires of the soul (pro variis animae desideriis) it is essential that the taste of God's presence (divinae gustum praesentiae) be varied to, and that the infused flavor (infusum saporem) of divine delight (supernae dulcedinis) should titillate (oblectare) in manifold ways the palate of the soul that seeks him. 31.7.22

If any of us is so filled with desire (desiderii vir, reference to Dan 9.23) that he wants (cupiat) to depart and to be with Christ, with a desire that is intense (cupiat autem vehementer), a thirst ever burning (ardenter sitiat), an application that never flags (assidue meditetur), he will certainly meet the Word in the guise of a Bridegroom on whatever day he comes. 32.2.7

...raised aloft on the wings of desire (levata pennis desideriorum), freely traverses the meadows of contemplation (per campos contemplationis). 32.2.23

...the one who is proved to be a worthy bride by intense devotion, vehement desire (desiderium vehemens) and the sweetest affection (praedulcis affectus). 32.3.26

It is one thing for a person to be tempted when he is lured and enticed by his own desire (concupiscentia), but quite another to freely pursue (appetere) evil as good. 42.4.27

...touch (tangas) the gate of heaven with the hand of holy desire (sancti desiderii) 49.3.21

Let him embrace (amplectatur) eternal things with an eternal desire (aeterna desiderio). 50.8.5

...transcending (excedens) the memory of things present, I may cast off not only the desire (cupiditatibus) for what are corporeal and inferior but even their images. 52.5.28

...shall we imagine for ourselves a powerful man of great stature, captivated by the love of an absent girl-friend (absentis mulierculae) and hastening (properat) to her desired embraces (ad cupitos amplexus)? 53.3.25

...if antipathy is banished by eagerness to listen (cum desiderio audiatur), then not only is the Bridegroom believed to be on the way but t be speeding, that is, coming in one's desire (in desiderio venire). His desire (desiderium) gives rise to yours. 57.6.9

It is characteristic of true and pure contemplation (contemplatio) that when the mind ardently glows with God's love (divino igne vehementer succenderit), it is sometimes so filled with zeal and the desire (desiderio) to gather to God those who will love him with equal abandon that it gladly foregoes contemplative leisure (otium contemplationis) for the endeavor of preaching. 57.9.25

But if the bride is enticed (trahi) by the Bridegroom this is because she receives from him the desire by which she is enticed (desiderium quo trahatur), the desire (desiderium) of good works, the desire (desiderium fructificandi) to bring forth fruit for the Bridegroom. 58.1.23

...these crannies are not found but rather made by studious and devout (a studiosis et piis mentibus) minds...by thought and eager desire (cogitatione et aviditate). 62.2.16

For some unknown reason, what is hidden is most desirable (plus placent), and we long most strongly for what is denied us. 67.7.18

Aspiring is a word which we use when we desire something passionately (vehementer aliquid desideramus). 72.6.19

It is a little while [cf. Jn 16.17] compared to what we deserve, but a long while to what we desire (longum votis). 74.4.3

For the loving soul is carried away by her prayers and drawn on by her longing (trahitur desideriis). 74.4.7

From the burning desire of my heart (ardenti desiderio cordis) I will not cease to call him. 74.7.7

How much worthy of its divine origin if it were free from desire (nihil cuperet) and fear! 82.4.3

...speak to him as to a familiar friend (familiariter), and refer to him in every matter with an intellectual grasp proportionate to the boldness of your desire (audax desiderio). 83.3.27

It is not with steps of the feet that God is sought but with the heart's desire (non pedum passibus, sed desideriis). 84.1.12

Joy will be fulfilled, but there will be no end to desire (desiderii not erit finis), and therefore no end to the search. 84.1.15

When you see a soul leaving everything and clinging to the Word with all her will and desire (votis omnibus adhaerere)...you know that the soul is the spouse and bride of the Word. 85.12.18

...in him is all that men should ask or desire (expedit), all they need, all that will profit them. There is no reason therefore to ask anything else of the Word, for he is all. 86.3.16

St. Bernard amplifies his affectus or desire for God by employing the Latin adverb utinam, "oh that!, would that!" which express an unfulfilled longing as we see in the following allusions from his Song Commentary. Although utinam does not in each case specifically refer to "desire" as enumerated above, this adverb nevertheless demonstrates Bernard's ardent nature:

But how I wish it [rejoicing] were inspired by his birth! 2.1.1

Would that you were cold or hot! [Rev 3.15-16] 7.4.21

How I wish that all had the gift of teaching! 22.3.28

One could mightily wish that so many people...would cease to expose themselves to that scriptural reproach (cf. Is 5.21). 26.7.19

Would that I have not lost you [referring to his brother, Gerard]! 26.11.11

Would that I were worthy to worship at his footstool! 27.9.15

How I wish the Lord would open my hear, that the word of his truth would enter into my heart. 28.6.12

...may the true Noontide, shining from the heavens, send forth his light and his truth even to us. 33.13.10

Far more desirable that there should never be a need to reprimand! 42.2.2

Lord Jesus, if only you would once say to my soul: "How beautiful you are." 45.2.24

Would that I possessed an abundance of these trees that grow so thickly in the Bridegroom's garden, the Church. 46.9.7

Would that the Lord Jesus would set in order in me the little fund of love he gave me. 49.6.22

How I long often to be the victim of this death that I may escape the snares of death. 52.4.18

How I wish that it [river] would inundate our mountains here on earth from time to time. 54.6.16

Would that I could catch all who oppose me without cause. 63.4.26

If only you would count me worthy of meeting such a prophet. 67.7.4

May he cast down in me all pride. 69.2.11

May I learn not to be proud. 69.2.12

Would that they were found as meticulous in discharging their duties as they are eager in running after their dignitaries! 77.2.24

Would that this frustration, this compulsion, were so strong that it was not voluntary. 81.9.3

* * * *

A key word which our three authors use is "angel" (aggelos, angelus) whose task is to mediate between the divine and earthly realms. Because these angelic beings partake of both realities, they are in a unique position to act as guides or models on how we must live according to the spirit while still in the body. Gregory of Nyssa speaks of this dual relationship in his Commentary as follows:

The Song's text readily employs words whose obvious meaning (procheiros emphasis) indicates the enjoyment of carnal passion (sarkodeis hedupatheias). Yet it does not fall into any improper meaning but leads us to the philosophy of divine things (pros ten ton theion philosophian) by means of chaste concepts. It shows that we are no longer to be men with a nature of flesh and blood; rather, it points to the life we hope for at the resurrection of the saints, an angelic life (isaggelos) free from all passion (apatheia). 30.7

Note the use of isaggelos, literally, "like" or "on the same plane as" the angels. These heavenly beings act as intermediaries between the divine and human realms, going back and forth between both spheres where they "lead us to the philosophy of divine things," that is, enabling us to fly like them to this realm. Such is the role angels play in both the Old and New Testaments. Perhaps a consideration of some reference to angels within the three Song Commentaries will demonstrate this better:

Origen

For if the heavenly Jerusalem is the mother of souls, and the angels equally are called heavenly (angeli...caelestes), there will be no inconsistency in her calling these who like herself are heavenly. II.3.17

And is her nature the same as that of the angels (angelorum)--for it is generally thought that one sort of rationality cannot by any means differ from another (rationabile a rationabili nequaquam differre creditur)? II.5.25

The vines or vineyards can, moreover, be taken also as denoting the heavenly and angelic powers (virtutes caelestes et angelicae) which bestow their sweet smell (largiuntur odorem) on men...teaching and instruction. IV.1.21

All those holy and blessed angelic powers (sanctae et beatae angelicae virtutes) with whom all the elect and blessed...will be associated by virtue of the resurrection (ex reusrrectione sociabuntur). IV.1.227

Gregory of Nyssa

After the resurrection we have been promised a life similar to the angels (te aggelike katastasei). 134.11

You imitate by truth of speech the sleepless angels (ten aupnon ton aggelon phusin) who do not shrink away from truth by any fantasies of the imagination. 287.14

His soul remains sleepless and undeceived under truth's rays...If we achieve this with the Word's assistance, we will attain the angelic life (aggelikos bios). 317.17

Bernard of Clairvaux

And so we see that though both animal and angelic spirits (inferior superiorque spiritus) have need of bodies, it is not for their own sakes but in order to render some service to others. 5.2.13.

...the angel (beatam spiritualem), by a prerogative of splendor and excellence, has no need of a bodily intermediary (ullo modo corporibus). 5.4.18

...he [angel] is the go-between for the lover and his beloved (discurrit medius inter dilectum et dilectam), making known the desires of one, bearing the fits of the other. 31.5.22

A gift still more sublime was the divine likeness (divinae similitudinis) he bore, that destined him for companionship with the angel hosts (cum plebe angelorum). 35.3.14

...to gaze without the use of (speculando non involvi) bodily likenesses is the sign of angelic purity (angelicae puritatis). 52.5.3

...because of their sharpness of vision and swiftness of motion (acumen visus et saltus celeritatem), fittingly designate both the holy souls who have laid aside the body and the angels who are in God's presence (cum deo sunt angeli). 52.6.28

...since man is made in the image and likeness of God and endowed with reason even as an angel (praeditus ratione ad instar unique angeli), he is yet a little less than the angel (modicum distat ab angelo) because of his earthly body. 53.8.25

The angels likewise work without irresolution (angelus non absque motu operatur), but they are not free from variations of time and place. 78.2.23

...for the greatness of the angels (angeli) derives from the same source as the greatness of the soul (animae magnitudo), from its capacity for the things of eternity (ex captu aeternitatis). 80.5.14

Note the chief characteristics of all three authors with regard to angels: heavenly, rational, bestow a sweet smell, their association with the resurrection, sleepless, performance of service, lack bodily intermediary, acting as a go-between, freedom from time and space and the capacity to grasp eternity. Despite some affiliation with the physical sphere inasmuch as they are created beings, angels are generally associated with things transcendent and lie beyond our normal reach. However, their role becomes more apparent when a person earnestly desires (through free use of affectus after the model Bernard of Clairvaux) the presence of Jesus in the guise of a Bridegroom. Angels thus assist us in our attempts to map out what we do not fully comprehend through the medium of what is familiar to us.

* * * *

Towards the beginning of this document, I mentioned that Origen, Gregory of Nyssa and Bernard of Clairvaux were concerned with whether marriage between a man and woman could represent our union with God. Because of their adsorption with this issue, I include a few references pertaining to the actual occurrences where the word "marriage" is employed; although this theme pervades all three Commentaries, its explicit use is not common:

Origen

The Scripture before us, therefore, speaks of this love with which the blessed soul is kindled and inflamed towards the Word of God; it sings by the Spirit the song of the marriage (epithalamii carmen) whereby the Church is joined and allied to Christ the heavenly Bridegroom, desiring to be united to Him through the Word. Prol 2.46

Gregory of Nyssa

Having thus cleansed the heart with respect to external matters, Solomon then initiates the soul into the divine sanctuary by means of the Song of Songs. What is described there is a marriage (epithalamios); but what is understood is the union of the human soul with God. 22.18

All flesh implies birth, with marriage (gamou) as the means for bringing it about. The person, however, who is not subject to a birth of flesh with respect to the mystery of religion does not submit to the actions effected by human nature nor to the passions arising from the mind. 387.13

Bernard of Clairvaux

For if marriage (carnale matrimonium) according to the flesh constitutes two in one body, why should not a spiritual union be even more efficacious in joining two in one spirit? 8.9.26

Such love [to love with one's whole heart], as I have said, is marriage (nupsisse), for a soul cannot love like this and not be beloved; complete and perfect marriage (connubium) consists in the exchange of love. 83.6.12

There is a similar saying [cf. Mt 19.27, "We have left everything to follow you."] which pointing to the spiritual marriage (connubium spirituale) between Christ and the Church, refers to physical marriage (carnali connubio): "For this shall a man leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall be one flesh" [Gen 2.24]. 85.12.13

But notice that in spiritual marriage (spirituali matrimonio) there are two kinds of birth [by preaching and spiritual insights by meditation], and thus two kinds of offspring, though not opposite. 85.13.26

For these authors and their successors who also commented upon the Song of Songs in later ages, the very word "marriage" poses a dilemma; on one hand it manifests the intensity of concrete, physical relationship and on the other, a reality which is wholly transcendent. The attractiveness of this paradox is that it remains unresolved; around its pole we witness the attainment of unity with God and those difficulties or purifications necessary to its fulfillment. Gregory of Nyssa best articulates this tension in that he gives the greatest number of warnings with regards to the physical aspects of marriage. In this sense his is the most idealistic of the three Commentaries, the most sophisticated as far as spiritual teaching goes, yet somehow does not communicate the warmth particular to someone like Bernard of Clairvaux perhaps resulting from a disavowal of corporeality which partly stems from close association with Platonic doctrine.

The following brief passages taken from towards the beginning of each Commentary will illustrate the often unresolved tension between marriage and the immaterial counterpart of which it supposedly represents:

Origen

For he, not knowing how to hear love's language in purity and with chaste ears, will twist the whole manner of his hearing of it away from the inner spiritual man (ab interiore homine) and on to the outward and carnal (ad exteriorem et carnalem); he will be turned away from the spirit to the flesh (a spiritu convertetur ad carnem). Prol 1.6

Gregory of Nyssa

Paul is teaching us an important lesson: we must pass to a spiritual and intelligent investigation (metabainein pros ten aulon kai noeten theorian) of scripture so that considerations of the merely human element might be changed into something perceived by the mind (tas somatikoteras ennoias metablethenai pros noun kai dianoian) once the more fleshly sense of the words has been shaken off like dust. 6.15

Bernard of Clairvaux

Only the mind disciplined by persevering study (provectae iam et eruditae mentis), only the man whose efforts have borne fruit under God's inspiration (Deo promovente), the man whose years, as it were, make him ripe for marriage--years measured out not in time but in merits (meritorum non temporum)--only he is truly prepared for nuptial union (nuptiis caelestis) with the divine partner. 1.12.7

I have italicized those words which heighten that tension between the spiritual and physical domains and to which I already had made allusion since they set the tone for each Commentary. Also, note that these words may be associated generally with the concept of passing, of moving from one mode of existence to another. Each author employs the three-fold use of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs and the Song of Songs with varying nuances and which deal with the common thread of advancing from one domain to another. With this basic plan in mind, it is helpful to examine how each man presents the order of these three books through their own words:

Origen

This, then, was the reason why this master [Solomon], who was the first to teach men divine philosophy (divinam philosophiam), put at the beginning of his work the Book of Proverbs, in which, as we said, the moral science (moralis) is propounded--so that when a person has progressed in discernment and behaviour he may pass on thence to train his natural intelligence (ad naturalis intelligentiae disciplinam) and, by distinguishing (distinguens) the causes and natures of things, may recognize the vanity of vanities that he must forsake, and the lasting and eternal things (ad aeterna et perpetua) that he ought to pursue. And so from Proverbs he goes on to Ecclesiastes, who teaches, as we said, that all visible and corporeal things are fleeting and brittle (caduca ac fragilia)...he will surely reach out for (tendet ad) the things unseen and eternal which, with spiritual meaning (spiritalibus sensibus) verily but under certain secret metaphors of love (adopertis amorum quibusdam figuris), are taught in the Song of Songs. Prol 3.14-15

Gregory of Nyssa

He [Solomon] leads the youth to a more perfect state (eis teleioteran hexin) in the final verses of Proverbs where he calls "blessed" the union of love in that section to the praises of the brave woman. Then Solomon adds the philosophy (philosophia) contained in Ecclesiastes for the person who has been sufficiently introduced by proverbial training to desire virtue (eis ten ton areton epithumian). After have reproached in that book men's attitudes towards external appearances (peri ta phainomena)...Solomon elevates above everything grasped by sense (hupertithesi pantos tou di'aistheseos) the loving movement (ten epithumetiken tes psuches kinesin) of our soul towards invisible beauty (to aoraton kallos). Having thus cleansed the heart with respect to external matters (peri ta phainomena), Solomon then initiates (mustagogei) the soul (dianoian) into the divine sanctuary by means of the Song of Songs. What is described there is a marriage, but what is understood is the union of the human soul with God (pros to theion estin anakrasis). 22

Bernard of Clairvaux

Now, unless I am mistaken, by the grace of God (per Dei gratiam) you have understood quite well from the book of Ecclesiastes how to recognize and have done with the false promise of this world. And then the book of Proverbs--has not your life and your conduct been sufficiently amended and enlightened (emendati et informati) by the doctrine it inculcates? These are two loaves of which it has been your pleasure to taste, loaves you have welcomed as coming from the cupboard of a friend. Now approach for this third loaf [the Song of Songs] that, if possible, you may always recognize what is best (ut probetis forsitan potiora). 1.2

These three excerpts may assume the following outline:

Origen

Proverbs: moral science, natural intelligence, vanity versus eternity

Ecclesiastes: fleeting and brittle things

Song of Songs: secret metaphors of love

Gregory of Nyssa

Proverbs: a more perfect state

Ecclesiastes: desire virtue

Song of Songs: the soul's loving movement towards invisible beauty

Bernard of Clairvaux

Ecclesiastes: false promise of the world

Proverbs: to enlighten the mind

Song of Songs: recognition of what is best

Note the order: Origen and Gregory have Proverbs followed by Ecclesiastes, whereas Bernard has Ecclesiastes followed by Proverbs; all three, of course, have the Song of Songs as the third and final step or associate that level with invisible reality. Despite the wholly transcendent nature of this third stage, it is the one which our commentators favor and expend their efforts. This is fascinating because as stated towards the beginning of this essay, the Song in all its "unspiritual-like" sensuality represents for them the exact opposite of its literal sense. Nevertheless, Gregory's excerpt sums it up best here when he puts his finger on the matter at hand: sensitivity with regard to the "soul's loving movement;" not just movement in the conventional sense but a direction "towards invisible beauty" which corresponds to Bernard's simple statement, "recognition of the best."

Due to the important of movement, especially Gregory of Nyssa's sophisticated insights into it, both material and spiritual, I give a partial listing of passages related to this notion from his Song Commentary ⁽¹³⁾:

Solomon elevates above everything grasped by the senses the loving movement of our soul (ten epithumetiken tes psuches hemon kinesin) towards invisible beauty. 22.13

The movement of our will freely (tou autexousiou kinematos autokratorikos) leads us to apparent realities. 55.7

Since only one thing has an intelligible, immaterial nature, the material world continuously passes away by a kind of flux and movement (dia rhoes tinos kai kineseos). 64.12

Further, the power which took up Elijah and removed him from the earth (metarsion ex tes) to the ethereal region is named a horse by scripture [cf. 2 Kg 2.11]. 74.16

...to wherever the inclination of free will (he rhope tes proaireseos) moves, it is changed (alloioutai) accordingly. 102.5

On the other hand, the divine nature is simple, pure, of one kind, unmoved (atreptos) , unchangeable (analloiotos), always the same, and always self-contained. 158.8

by its [Spirit] light the shadows of life are removed (metakinountai). 169.13

It [Bride's cut hair] shows itself completely dead and unmoved (akinetos) by things of this world in any circumstance. 221.19

God does not fashion the human voice for any reason except to be an instrument of his word whose movements (kinemata) pass through the heart. 235.2

After hearing the unutterable mysteries of paradise, Paul still continued to move higher and did not cease to ascend (ou kegei tes anabaseos). 245.19

The soul thus progresses through higher realms (aniousa dia ton anoteron) towards the unbounded. 247.17

...Christ sets no limit on our thirst nor on our movement towards him (pros auton hormes). 248.8

A person always moving towards God (pros auton protrope) never lacks this incitement towards greater progress. 248.14

Here [referring to 2 Cor 5.13] ecstasy is a movement towards God (ekstasis pros ekeinon). 309.11

Reason looks above while it remains undisturbed and free from the senses' movement (ek tes aisthetikes kineseos kai atholotos). 313.15

It [contemplation of Being, theoria tou ontos] puts to rest all bodily movement (sumatiken katakoimesasa kinesin), and by naked, pure insight, the soul will see God in a divine watchfulness (dia tes theias egregorseos). 314.5

For by a divine command Moses removed from his feet (eleutherosas tous podas) the covering of dead skins because he walked upon holy, enlightened ground [cf. Ex 3.5]. 329.18-30.2

We cannot go on this way [cf. Jn 14.6] unless we remove (hupolusamenon) the covering of the dead man. 330.16

Wisdom moves (anakinousa) all one's thoughts and capacity for investigation to grasp out of curiosity the object of one's search. 334.5

The living Word cannot be present in us...unless we remove (perieloito) the veil of flesh by the mortification of our bodies on earth. 342.15

Thus the movement (hormen) of each [our nature: subtle and thick] has a proper activity which cannot be communicated to the other. For the intelligent and light is characteristic of upward movement (epi to ano phoran), while the heavy and material always tends downward and is carried there. 345.13

Because these two movements (kineseos) are by nature contradictory, the movement of one cannot function properly unless the other is slackened in its natural movement (kata phusin phoran). 345.17

...the only way for comprehending that power transcending all understanding is never to remain in any notion of him, but to always move forward (aei zetounta) and never stand still (me istasthai). 352.15

Note the various nuances of "movement" which may be reduced to two general categories, physical and non-physical, the latter being associated with awareness or those situations where a subject-object relationship is lacking or at least one difficult to perceive in distinct terms. In these instances words of motion cannot apply strictly to the will yet are relevant only insofar as a metaphor borrows images from the concrete world.

* * * *

The concept of image (eikon, imago), while traditionally having received more attention within the Greek tradition, is nevertheless found within the Latin one. Due to its central importance, I list some key passages from each of the three Song Commentaries and include a brief note intended to fill out the reference. After this list I include another with several excerpts pertaining to the word "likeness" whose basis lies in Genesis 2.26, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness:"

Origen

...but the desire and love of him who bears the image of the heavenly according to the inner man (secundum interiorem hominem) are heavenly. Prol 2.16

For in me too there is that primal thing (illud primum), the Image of God wherein I was created; and, coming now to the Word of God, I have received my beauty (recepi speciem meam). II.1.4

Anyone who so desires can think of a host of further ways like these, by which the soul may test her knowledge of herself and, contemplating the beauty (contemplari pulchritudinem suam) which she received at her creation in God's Image, may judge how it may be renewed and restored (reparare aut restituere). II.5.15

For, since the sons of God are thus repairing His Image (per innovationem sui imaginem in se reparant) in themselves by the renewal of themselves, they are rightly called apple trees. III.8.10

He leaped upon the prophetical mountains and the holy hills, those, namely, who in this world bore his Image and His form (imaginem eius formamque). III.11.11

And perhaps, even as God made man to His own image and likeness, so also did He create the other creatures after the likeness of some other heavenly patterns (ad alias quasdam caelestes imagines per similitudinis in caelestibus). III.13.10

Nor would He call her fair, unless He saw her image renewed day by day (renovari de die in diem): this verse implies: "according to the Image of Him who created it, not having spot or wrinkle or any such thing" [2Cor 4.16]. IV.1.3

Gregory of Nyssa

Human nature was an image (apeikonisma) of the true light, far removed (porro) from any darkness; it gleamed by imitation (homoioteti) of the archetype's beauty (archetupou kallous). 51.12

You alone are made in the likeness of that nature which surpasses all understanding (huperechouses panta noun), the image of incorruptible beauty (tou aphthartou kallous homoioma), the impression of true divinity (tes alethines theotetos apotupuma), receptacle of blessed life, seal of true light. You will become what he is by looking at him. 68.6

Whichever expression we take, one idea is common to all, namely, that from the virtues we obtain knowledge of the good (agathou ten gnosin) which transcends all understanding (tou panta noun huperechontos) just as the beauty of an archetype can be inferred (dia tinos eikonos to archetupon kallos analogisasthai) from its image. 91.3

Persons skilled in studying natural phenomena say that the eye sees by receiving the impression of images (emptoseis dechomenos) emanating from visible objects. For this reason the beauty of the bride's eyes is praised since the image of a dove (to tes peristeras eidos) appears in her pupils. Whenever a person gazes upon (enatenise) an object he receives in himself (dechetai en heauto) the image (homoioma) of that object. 105.17

How can one behold a beautiful sight in a mirror (en katoptro) unless the mirror has reflected the image of a beautiful form (morphes)? Human nature is also a mirror, and it was not beautiful until it drew near to Beauty and was transformed (enemorphothe) by the image of the divine loveliness (te eikoni tou theiou kallous enemorphothe). 150.13

When the bridegroom exhorts the bride who is already beautiful to become beautiful, he clearly recalls the words of the Apostle who bids the same image to be transformed "from glory to glory (eikona...apo doxes eis doxan metamorphousthai, 2Cor 3.18)? By glory he means what we have grasped and found (to lambanoumenon kai to aei heuriskomenon) at any given moment. 160.3

Once a person has accomplished this and has attained the summit of praises (ton egkomion to hupsos), he always shows the characteristics (charakteras) of the divine image in himself (tia panton tes theias eikonos eph'heautou). 289.18

Thus when the soul has prepared itself and has rejected every material stain (pasan huliken aporripsamene), it represents (enetuposato) the image (eidos) of that pure, unstained beauty. The soul, a living mirror possessing free will (to proairetikon) says, "When I look at my beloved's face, the beauty of his form is reflected in me (en emoi kathoratai). 440.6

If for some mysterious reason the divinely inspired (theopneustos) text says that the divine nature (ten theian phusin) has wings, then the first man made according to God's image and likeness (kat'eikona kai homoiosin theou) was in every way like its archetype. 447.15

Bernard of Clairvaux

Finally God himself is love (caritas), and nothing created can satisfy the man who is made to the image of God (ad imaginem Dei), except the God who is love, who alone is above all created natures (solus maior est illa). 18.6.17

God indeed gave man an upright stance (staturam rectam) of body, perhaps in order that this corporeal uprightness, exterior and of little account, might prompt the inward man (hominem interiorem admoneret), made to the image of God (ad imaginem Dei factus est), to cherish his spiritual uprightness (spiritualis suae rectitudinis). 24.6.12

If we consider the outward appearance (exteriorem sanctorum) of the saints, all that our eyes may discern, how lowly and abject it is, how slovenly through want of care (incuria); yet at the same time, inwardly, "with unveiled faces reflecting like mirrors the brightness of the Lord, they grow brighter and brighter as they are turned by the Spirit of the Lord into the image that they reflect (in eamdem imaginem transformentur, 2Cor 3.18." 25.5.18

Their whole attention is fixed (omni se diligentia praebet et occupat) on improving and adorning the inward self (interiori illi) that is made to the image of God (ad imaginem Dei), and is renewed (renovatur) day by day. For they are certain that nothing can be more pleasing to God than his own image when restored (restituta) to its original beauty. 25.7.8

You have made him a little less than the angels" [Ps 8.6]. Although this could be understood as praise of human nature, since man is made in the image and likeness of God (ad imaginem et similitudinem Dei conditus) and endowed with reason (praeditus ratione) even as an angel, he is yet a little less than (modicum tamen distat) the angel because of his earthly body. 53.8.24

For when the soul can once perceive the glory of God (gloriam Dei speculari) without a veil, it is compelled by some affinity of nature to be conformed (se conformari) to it, and be transformed to its very image (in eamdem imaginem transformari). 69.7.25

Take first the Image (de imagine prius). The word is truth, it is wisdom and righteousness. These constitute the Image (haec imago). The image of what (cuius)? Of righteousness, wisdom and truth (iustitia, sapientia, veritas). For the image (imago), the Word, is righteousness from righteousness, wisdom from wisdom, truth from truth, as he is light and God from God. 80.2.25+

Is there no difference between the image of God and the soul which is made in its image (imago ab anima, quae ad imaginem est), since we attribute greatness and uprightness to it, too? For the soul receives according to its capacity (ad mensuram), but the image receives in equal measure (illa ad aequalitatem) with God...the soul is endowed with both by God who created him and made him great, but the image of God (imago Dei) receives them by God's begetting...Although man received his gifts from God's hands (a Deo), the image (imago) received them from God's being (de Deo), that is, from his very substance (substantia). 80.3.22+

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Here is a select list of the word likeness which requires alignment ⁽¹⁴⁾, so to speak, with our innate divine image for its realization:

Origen

It [Church] will then be the likeness (similitudinem) of the same soul which He here calls "my neighbour," that the Church and this is the aggregate of those many souls (ex multis congregatur animabus) that were formerly under Pharao's yoke and among his chariots, and now are called the company of the Lord's horsemen ought to bear. II.6.13

Paul the apostle teaches us that the invisible things of God (invisibilia Dei) are understood by means of things that are visible (ex visibilibus), and that the things that are not seen are beheld (contemplentur) through their relationship (ratione) and likeness (similitudine) to things seen. III.13.9

On the pattern (similitudinem) of these the Creator gave to His creatures on earth a certain likeness (similitudinem) to these, so that thus their great diversity might be more easily (facilius) deduced and understood (colligi per haec ac sentire). III.13.9

And perhaps, even as God made man to His own image and likeness (similitudinem), so also did He create the other creatures after the likeness (similitudinem) of some other heavenly patterns (ad alias quasdam caelestes imagines per similitudinem). And perhaps the correspondence between all things on earth and their celestial prototypes (aliquid imaginis et similitudinis in caelestibus) goes so far, that even the grain of mustard seed, which is the least of all seeds, has something in heaven whose image and likeness (similitudinis) it bears. III.13.10

And he doubtless shows by this that each of the manifest (in manifesto) things is to be related to one of those that are hidden (in occulto); that is to say, all things visible have some invisible likeness (similitudinis) and pattern (rationis), it is impossible for a man living in the flesh to know anything of matters hidden and invisible unless he has apprehended some image and likeness (similitudinem) thereto from among things visible. 13.16 & 17

Gregory of Nyssa

The form (morphe) constituted by these terms is blessedness, detachment (apatheia), union with God (pros ton theion sunapheia), alienation from evil, and likeness (exomoiosis) to what is truly beautiful and good (to ontos kalon kai agathon). 29.1

Immortality (athanasia) is the vineyard, a state free from passion (apatheia), likeness (pros to theion homoiosis) to God and estrangement (allotriosis) from evil. 60.5

You alone are made in the likeness (homoioma) of that nature which surpasses all understanding (huperechouses panta noun), the image of incorruptible beauty (tou aphthartou kallous homoioma). 68.6

Whenever a person gazes (enatenise) upon an object he receives in himself (dechetai en heauto) the likeness (homoioma) of that object. 105.17

The beauty of the entire Church's body (soma) will, in the future, be glorified in each member through some kind of comparison (paratheseos) and likeness (homoioseos). 232.12

The garment of your virtues, my bride, imitates the divine blessedness (ten theian mimeitai makarioteta) and resembles (homoioseos) the transcendent divine nature (aprosito phusei) by your purity (katharotetos) and freedom from passion (apatheia). 272.16

It seems that she has no further to reach (huperare) once she has been compared (homoioseos) to beauty's archetype (to archetupon kallos). 293.8

What can be better than the likeness (homoioma) of incorruptible beauty (tou akeratou kallous)? 348.2

However, man was the image and likeness (homoioma) of eternal life, truly beautiful and exceedingly good, adorned with the radiant form (charakteri) of life. 348.7

Every other liquid is like a mirror whose smooth surface serves to reflect the likeness (homoioteta) of those gazing (bleponton) in it. 396.12

In her conformity (summemorphosthai) to Christ she receives her proper beauty, that primal blessedness of our nature, according to the image and likeness (homoiosin) of the original beauty which alone is true and worthy of adoration. 439.19

It is clear that the bride compares (homoiosasa) her own beauty to such divine benevolence by imitating (mimeitai) Christ in her works; she is to others what Christ was in his human nature. 443.13

If for some mysterious reason the divinely inspired text says that the divine nature has wings, then the first man made according to God's image and likeness (homoiosin) was in every way like its archetype (pros to archetupon homoioteta). 447.16

But according to scripture, the prototype has a wing; hence human nature was created with wings (pteruxin) so that it may be in the divine likeness (homoios). 448.5

What can be more exalted than similarity (homoioseos) to God? Thus the end of the first creation is simultaneous (adiastatos) with its beginning (arche), for human nature originated in perfection (apo tes teleiotetos). 458.9

Bernard of Clairvaux

...provided you are renewed and reformed (renovare et reformare) according to the glorious and original plan of the eternal God, the likeness (similitudinis) of him in whom there is no such thing as alternation (transmutatio), no shadow of a change. 21.6.20

Living thus, this noble creature, made to the image and likeness (similitudinem) of his Creator, indicates that even now he is re-acquiring (receptare) the dignity of that primal honor (antiqui honoris), since he deems it unworthy to be conformed to a world that is waning. 21.6.24

It is the Spirit who teaches, interpreting spiritual truths to those who possess the Spirit (spiritualibus spiritualia comparans). Therefore God made man righteous in his soul, not in the body (secundum animum, non secundum terrenam) made of earthly slime. He created him according to his own image and likeness (similitudinem). 24.5.1

Iniquity is a fault in the heart, not in the flesh, and so you should realize that the likeness (similitudinem) of God is to be preserved or restored (conservandam sive reparandam) in your spirit, not in the body, of grass clay. 24.5.5

This is no rashness, taking her comparison (similitudinem) from whence her origin comes (unde originem ducit). 27.6.15

What can be a clearer sign of her heavenly origin (caelestis insigne originis) than that she retains a natural likeness (similitudinem) to it in the land of unlikeness (dissimilitudinis) ? 27.6.23

A gift still more sublime was the divine likeness (similitudinis) he bore, that determined him for companionship with the angel hosts (sors et societas cum plebe angelorum). 35.3.13

From then on this fairest of creatures (egregia creatura) was reduced to the level of the herd; from then on the likeness (similitudine) of God was changed to the likeness (similitudine) of a beast. 35.6.6

Let us be aware, then, that because of its origin in the divine likeness (similitudinis) it has in itself a natural simplicity of substance (substantiae naturalem simplicitatem) by which for it to exist is to live, even if it does not imply living in a state of blessedness; its likeness (similitudo) doe