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Christianity
in Edessa and the Syriac-Speaking World: Mani,
Bar Daysan and Ephraem; The
Struggle for Allegiance on the Aramean Frontier by Sidney
Griffith, Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. (This text has been scanned with the author’s permission. Please note that since it is a scanned
document, some inaccuracies were difficult to eliminate such as margins,
etc.) I Edessa and the Syriac Language In Late Antiquity the geographical area to the
east of Antioch, stretching from the northern reaches of the land between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers westward almost to the Mediterranean sea, and
southward to the environs of Damascus, was often called by the local
inhabitants, Aram. The name is that of the biblical son of Shem, the son of Noah,
from whom the Christian inhabitants of the area in later times derived their
legendary ancestry (Genesis 10:22-23).1 At some point after the
Seleucids gained power in the area in the fourth century before the Christian
era, people began to call all, or parts, of this indeterminate territory
Syria, probably a shortened form of the ancient name Assyria. The local
dialect of the Aramaic language spoken in this territory from the first three
centuries of the Christian era onward is the language modern, western
scholars call `Syriac'.2 __________ 1 The
earliest textual reference to 'Aram' may actually occur before biblical
times, in the archives
of Ebla in the 3rd millenium. See Edward Lipinski, The Aramaeans, their
Ancient History, Culture, Religion (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 100;
Leuven: Peeters, 2001), p. 26. 2 On
the development of what one might call `Classical Syriac', see the important
remarks of Lucas Van Rompay, "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Origins of
Classical Syriac as a Standard Language; the Syriac Version of Eusebius of
Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History," in Gideon Goldenberg & Shlomo
Raz (eds.), Semitic and Cushitic Studies (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz,
1994), pp. 70-89. __________
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During the years when the Severan Dynasty ruled in Rome, Edessa,
the ancient Urhay and modern [Sanli] Urfa,3 was the center of
Aramean, or Syriac, literary culture. For the Persians, i.e., the
`Parthians', it was the capital of the province of Osrhoene; in the 160's AD
the territory came under Roman domination. 4 As Steven K. Ross has
recently written, "By the end of the century between Trajan (97-117) and
Septimius Severus (193-211), the king of Edessa was squarely within Roman clientela,
and the groundwork was laid for the even firmer incorporation of
his realm into the empire." 5 King Abgar VIII, `the Great'
(178/9-212), was the king at the time. It was during his reign, as a client
king of Rome, that "pre-Christian Edessan culture reached its zenith.6
Edward Gibbon gave this still apt description of Osrhoene just prior to the
Severan period: That little state occupied
the northern and most fertile part of Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and
the Tigris. Edessa, its capital, was situated about twenty miles beyond the
former of those rivers; and the inhabitants, since the time of Alexander,
were a mixed race of Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, and Armenians. The feeble
sovereigns of Osrhoene, placed on the dangerous verge of two contending
empires, were attached from __________ 3 See Amir Harrak, "The
Ancient Name of Edessa," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 51
(1992), pp. 209-214. 4 See Fergus Millar, The
Roman Near East; 31 BC - AD 337 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1993), pp. 472-481; Warwick Ball, Rome in the East; the Transformation of
an Empire (London & New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 87-94; Maurice
Sartre, D'Alexandre a Zdnobie; histoire du Levant antique, Ive siecle
avant J.-C, IIIe siecle apres J.-C. (Paris: Fayard, 2001), pp. 630-637, 961-962. 5 Steven
K. Ross, Roman Edessa; Politics and Culture on the Eastern Fringes of the
Roman Empire, 114-242C E (London &New York: Routledge, 2001), p. 29. 6 Ross, Roman Edessa,
p. 57. __________
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inclination to the Parthian cause; but the
superior power of Rome exacted from them a reluctant homage.7 Gibbon here put his finger on a salient fact
about life in Edessa, and the Syriac-speaking milieu generally. It was life
on the frontier.8 Wars between the Romans and the Persians were an
ever-present factor in this territory, in which the borders between the two
empires were constantly shifting, depending on unpredictable military sallies
and excursions from one side or the other. 9 Moreover, another
constant feature of life in this milieu was the often-forced transfer of
whole populations from one jurisdiction to the other, depending on the
fortunes of the wars.' 10 Intellectual life was deeply imbued with
both `Roman' and `Persian' features; `Hellenism' and the indigenous,
`Semitic' modes of thought and expression often clashed and then intermingled
in both religious and more broadly cultural discourse." In these cross-frontier circumstances, some
measure of local identity was preserved in the burgeoning success of the
Syriac language; developed in the environs of Edessa, it was spoken and
understood on both sides of the indefinite, great divide between Rome and
Persia, thereby creating a cross-frontier community. The language carried
with it a family relationship to the Jewish world in which Christianity first
appeared in the synagogue communities of Mesopotamia and Syria/Palestine. It
was this __________ 7 Edward
Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (David
Womersley, ed., 3 vols.; London: Penguin, 1994), vol. I, p. 224. 8 See
Ernst Kirsten, "Edessa; eine r6mische Grenzstadt des 4. Bis 6.
Jahrhunderts im Orient," Jahrbuch fur Antike and Christentum 6(1963),
pp. 144-172. 9 See
D. Kennedy, "The East," in J. Wacher, The Roman World (vol.
I; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), pp. 266-308. 10 See
S.N.C. Lieu, "Captives, Refugees and Exiles: a Study of Cross-Frontier
Civilian Movements and Contacts between Rome and Persia from Valerian to
Jovian," in P. Freeman & D. Kennedy (eds.), The Defence of the
Roman and Byzantine East (part 2; Oxford: British Institute of
Archaeology at Ankara, 1986), pp. 475-508. 11 See G. W. Bowersock, Hellenism
in Late Antiquity (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press,
1990), esp. pp. 29-40. __________
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language which eventually carried the Christian
faith across the trade routes of Central Asia, eastward into China and
southward into India. 12 For it was Christianity that provided the cultural elan that made
Syriac much more than just the Aramaic dialect of Edessa. From the third
century onward it became the lingua franca of a sizeable, mostly mercantile population group in Mesopotamia, who,
until well into Islamic times, carried their cultural identity in their own
distinctive idiom far and wide. II Christianity in Edessa One no longer knows for sure when or exactly
how Christianity first came to the Syriac-speaking communities. Modern
scholars are divided between supporters of the view that it first appeared
among Jews in the kingdom of Adiabene, to the north and east of Osrhoene, who
had close ties to Palestine, and those who think that Christianity came first
to Edessa, from Antioch. What is clear is that by the time of the Roman
emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) there was a large enough community of
Christians in Edessa to support a church building in the city. The Chronicle of Edessa records the fact that in the year 201AD the church of
the Christians was destroyed by a flood. The same sixth-century chronicle
dates the `apostasy' of Marcion to the year 138 AD, and it records the date
of Bar Daysan's birth in Edessa in the year 154 AD. 13 Both Marcion and Bar Daysan will figure
prominently in the discussion to follow of the first notable Christians of
Edessa. __________ 12 See Samuel Hugh Moffett, A
History of Christianity in Asia (vol. I: Beginnings to 1500; San
Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992; Ian Gillman & Hans-Joachim Klimkeit,
Christians in Asia before 1500 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan
Press, 1999). 13 See I. Guidi, Chronica
Minora (CSCO, vols., 1 & 2; Louvain: Secretariat du CSCO, 1903 &
1907), pp. 2 & 3. __________
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The Chronicle
of Edessa presents a retrospective view of
the glories of Edessa. It was composed around the year 540 AD, drawn from the
records of the city's archives and other sources. It is put together from the
perspective of a compiler in the sixth century, anxious to highlight the
city's ancient heritage. 14 From it and other sources one learns how from
around the year 132 BC to AD 249, well into the Roman colonial period, Edessa
enjoyed the rule of a local dynasty of kings. The dynasty is often called the
`Abgarids', after the name Abgar, the given name of a number of the city's
kings. But it is more correctly `the Aryu dynasty', a family of Arab origin,
whose rule fostered a dynamic of national consciousness. 15
Inscriptions in Old Syriac and Classical
Syriac from the first three centuries of the Christian era preserve the names
of many of the noble families of the period. 16 But for the origins of Christianity in Edessa and
its environs, the Chronicle does not offer much help. In the first decades of the fifth century, a
now anonymous writer working in Edessa, and also using the city archives, as
he claims, put together a remarkable narrative which he called The Teaching of Addai the Apostle. 17 At the end of the work the author says that he used
records written by the scribe Labubna, the son of Senaq, the son of Abshadar,
as his source, and that Hannan, the royal archivist, had testified to their __________ 14 See W. Witakowski,
"Chronicles of Edessa," Orientalia Suecana 33-34
(1984-1986), pp. 486-498. 15 See Millar, The Roman Near East,
31 BC - AD 337, pp. 472-481. 16 See
Han J. W. Drijvers & John F. Healey, The Old Syriac Inscriptions of Edessa
& Osrhoene: Texts Translations & Commentary (Handbuch der
Orientalistik, 42; Leiden: Brill, 1999). 17 The text was first
published and translated into English by George Phillips, The Doctrine of
Addai, the Apostle, Now First Edited in a Complete Form in the Original
Syriac (London: Trubner & Co., 1876). It is now also available, in
Phillips' edition, but with a new English version, in George Howard (trans.),
The Teaching of Addai (SBL Texts and Translations, 16, Early Christian
Literature Series, 4; Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1981). For further
information about the text and its manuscript witnesses, see A. Desreumaux,
"La Doctrine d'Addai; essai de classement des temoins syriaques et
grecs," Augustinianum 23 (1983), pp. 181-186. See also Alain Desreumaux,
Histoire du roi Abgar et de Jesus (Paris: Brepols, 1993). ___________
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accuracy. 18 In his work the author
undertook not only to tell the story of the coming of Christianity to Edessa,
and to demonstrate its apostolic origins, but, perhaps even more importantly
for his own purposes, he provided a profile of the doctrine that he
represented as the Christian Kerygma originally
preached in Edessa. At the very beginning the author lists the three main
moments of the narrative: *when Abgar, the king, the son of Ma'nu, the
king, sent the letter to Jerusalem, to our Lord; *when Addai, the apostle, came to Edessa/Urhay,
and what he said in the announcement of his kerygma; *the instructions he gave when he was leaving
this world, to those who had received the hand of the priesthood from him. 19 Following the third moment of the narrative,
the account of Addai's instructions to his Edessene followers, the author
provides a brief, concluding recital of developments in the church of Edessa
after the time of Addai. Finally, at the very end, there is the notice about
Labubna, the king's scribe, "the one writing down these things of Addai,
the apostle," and Hannan, the king's trustworthy archivist, who
"set down the hand of witness."20 The literary heart of
the work, as we now have it, is to be found in the speeches delivered by
Addai in Edessa. The major themes in the speeches highlight the following
issues: the Roman political and ecclesiastical alignment of Edessa and its
territories; a hierarchical church order in communion with the sees of
Antioch and Rome; a list of religious adversaries including pagans and Jews;
a Christology reminiscent of that of Cyril of Alexandria; and moral
imperatives concerned with the proper use of __________ '8 See Howard, The
Teaching of Addai, pp. lii-liii; 105-107. 19 Howard,
The Teaching of Addai, pp. 1 & 3. __________
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wealth in service of the poor. The study of the
terms in which these themes are presented in the work leads to the conclusion
that the Doctrina
Addai in its final form comes from the
pen of a writer in the entourage of Bishop Rabbula of Edessa (d.436) in the
first third of the fifth century. 21 The Doctrina Addai puts
forward the several major themes as the component parts of a distinctly
Edessan profile of the Christian faith that in its author's opinion went back
to the origins of Christianity in that city. He used documentary sources from
the city's archives, as well as legendary accounts of the first Christians in
the city, to support the political and doctrinal point of view he wished to
commend. For this purpose he evokes the memory of King Abgar V, `the Black',
(4 BC - 7 AD & 13 A D - 50 AD) and the legendary account of his having
sent envoys to Palestine with a letter for Jesus at the time of his passion.
He asked Jesus to come to Edessa to heal the king of an illness. According to
the story, Jesus then responded with a message of his own. He promised to
send a disciple to Edessa after his ascension into heaven, to heal Abgar and
to preach the Gospel in his kingdom. Meanwhile, Hannan the archivist, a
member of the king's delegation to Jesus, is said to have brought a portrait
he painted of Jesus back to Edessa with him from Palestine. 22 And in due course, after Jesus' passion, death
and resurrection, according to the story, the disciple Addai came to
evangelize Edessa, in fulfillment of Jesus' promise, and to establish the
city's claim to an apostolic foundation for her church. The problem with this
account, from the historian's point of view, is
that __________ 20
Howard, The Teaching of Addai, pp. liii & 107. 21 See Sidney H. Griffith,
"Writing History in Syriac in Late Antique Edessa: the Doctrina
Addai as a Paradigm of Christian Thought on the Aramean Frontier
of the Roman Empire," in Richard Lim & Carole Straw (eds), The
World of Late Antiquity: the Challenge of New Historiographies (Berkeley:
University of California Press, in press). __________
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the legendary character of the framework
narrative, and the Rabbulan profile of the main body of the work, make it
unreliable as a source of information about how Christianity actually first
came to the Syriac-speaking world. Of course, the legend may well have a
historical fundamentum in re, but
if so it is now indiscernible beneath layers of narrative color. From a reading of the Doctrina Addai, one goes on in the search for the first Christians of
Edessa to other documents. The earliest, independent historical document one
might mention, dating from around the year 192 A.D., is the epitaph of
Abercius Marcellus, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia. It mentions the presence
of Christians in the environs of Edessa from the second half of the second
century onward. Finally, Julius Africanus (c. 160-240), who in 195 CE came
with Septimius Severus' expedition to Osrhoene, mentions in his Kestoi or `Embroideries', that he had met Bar Daysan in Edessa.23 Tatian
the Syrian (c. 160 CE), who says of himself that he was from Assyria, 24 by which he presumably meant northern Mesopotamia, is
perhaps the earliest Christian whom we know by name to have come from the
Syriac-speaking milieu. He had gone to Rome to study philosophy and there he
converted to Christianity under the influence of Justin Martyr (c.100-c.165).
Sometime after the latter's death, perhaps around the year 172, Tatian
returned to his native land. Therefore, Tatian himself may well have played a
significant role in the dissemination of Christianity beyond the Euphrates.
In the works __________ 22 On the famous image of Edessa see now Han J. W.
Drijvers, "The Image of Edessa in the Syriac Tradition," in H. L.
Kessler & G. Wolf (eds), The Holy Face and the Paradox of
Representation (Villa Spelman Colloquia, Florence, 1996, vol. 6; Bologna:
Nuova Alfa, 1998), pp. 13-31. 23 See the passage quoted in the prefatory material
to M. J. Routh, Reliq_uiae Sacrae (vol. II, 1844), reprinted in PG,
vol. X, cols. 45-46. 24 See Molly Whittaker (ed. & trans.), Tatian,
Oratio ad Graecos and Fragments (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), section
42, pp. 76-77 ___________ |